Significant evolutionary progressive acquisitions of birds are. Evolution of Birds: Sequence Breaks and Recurrent Changes

Homework for 5/6/17. Test "Birds"
Option 1
A1. The science of birds is called
1. poultry farming
2. ornithology
3. cynology
4. ichthyology
A2. Bird skin
1. thin, dry, completely covered with horny formations
2. thin, dry, devoid of glands (only the coccygeal), all covered with feathers
3. thin, dry, there is one coccygeal gland, there are areas on the body that are devoid of feathers
4. penetrated by numerous glands that secrete mucus
A3. Nocturnal birds of prey have
1. good eyesight and developed flight feathers
2. soft and loose plumage and good hearing
3. weakly feathered front of the head and neck
4. small size and excellent hearing
A4. If oil or fuel oil gets on the feathers of waterfowl, then
1. plumage properties will remain virtually unchanged
2. the feathers will stick to the body, and it will take on a more streamlined shape
3. the number of birds increases, since such birds will not be eaten by predators
4. feathers will stick together, water will easily penetrate the skin, and the birds will die from chilling
A5. Which bird has the most developed muscular section of the stomach:
1. at the black grouse
2. at the eagle
3. at the woodpecker
4. at the tit

Ulna: forearm=tarsus: __________
1. shin
2. brush

3. foot
4. thigh
Part B
IN 1. Establish a correspondence between the features of the circulatory system and the classes
animals. Enter your answer in the table.
Features of the circulatory system

Animal classes

1. There is venous blood in the heart

A. Bony fish

2. The heart has four chambers

3. Venous blood from the heart flows to
easy
4. Two circles of blood circulation
5. The heart has two chambers
6. One circle of blood circulation

Significant evolutionary, progressive acquisitions of birds are:
1. Lightness and strength of the skeleton
2. Metabolic rate
3. Mixed blood in the heart
4. Bony skull
5. Beak without teeth
6. The brain has five sections
AT 3.
Install
subsequence
subordination
relevant
terms
systematic categories. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers in your answer.
1. view ________________
2. gender _________________
3. family ___________________
4. squad ________________
5th grade _________________
6. type ___________________
1. Common hoopoe
2. Chordates
3. Hoopioformes
4. Udopoids
5. Hoopoe
6. Birds

Part C

Why is bird breeding considered superior to reptile breeding?
Option 2
A1. The structure of Archeopteryx has been studied by science
1. taxonomy
2. paleontology
3. physiology
4. arachnology
A2. The part of the feather immersed in the skin is called
1. barrel
2. fan
3. start
4. beards
A3. The structural feature of the ostrich is
1. preservation of the skeletal structure like that of flying birds
2. The barbs of the feathers are interlocked with each other, making the feather almost impenetrable to air.
3. well developed pectoral muscles and leg muscles
4. sternum flat without keel
A4. If a lot of washing powder gets into the water, then waterfowl
1. feathers will become cleaner and lighter
2. plumage properties will remain virtually unchanged
3. the fat on the feathers will dissolve, the water will begin to quickly wet them
4. Feathers, when exposed to powder, form a dense waterproof layer
A5. Rapid digestion of food is an adaptation to:
1. nature of food
2. feeding the young
3. flight
4. the need to store food all the time
A6. There is a certain connection between the first and second concepts. Find a similar one
connection between the third and one of the 4 given concepts.
Lower limbs: tarsus = air sacs: __________
1. gas exchange
2. respiratory system
3. high metabolic rate

4. excretory system
Part B
IN 1. Establish a correspondence between the character of Archeopteryx and the class of vertebrates, on
the relationship with which this feature indicates
Signs of Archeopteryx

Vertebrate classes

1. The tail is elongated, consisting of 20
vertebrae

2. Body covered with feathers

B. Reptiles

3. Bones are not filled with air
4. The forelimbs are modified to
wings
5. There are four toes on the feet: three are pointed
forward, one back
6. Jaws with small teeth
AT 2. Choose several correct answers. Write the answer as a sequence of letters.
Bird brains are different from amphibian brains
1. the presence of the medulla oblongata
2. enlargement of the forebrain hemispheres
3. reduction of the forebrain
4. greater development of the midbrain
5. presence of the diencephalon
6. better development of the cerebellum
AT 3. Establish the sequence of stages in the evolution of the circulatory system of chordates
animals. Write the answer as a sequence of letters.
1. Closed circulatory system with a heart consisting of unpaired atria and
ventricles, developed from only branchial vessels
2. Closed circulatory system with a heart consisting of paired atria and
ventricles separated by an incomplete septum
3. Closed circulatory system without a heart
4. Closed circulatory system with a heart consisting of paired atria and
ventricles separated by a complete septum
5. Closed circulatory system with a heart consisting of paired atria and
azygos ventricle, appearance of pulmonary vessels
6. Closed circulatory system with a heart consisting of paired atria and
azygos ventricle, appearance of pulmonary arteries
Part C
C1. Give a detailed answer to the question posed.
A sparrow eats an amount of food per day equal to approximately 80% of its own weight. Why
does he eat that much?

TEST ANSWER FORM

Student’s FI ______________________________ Option 1

Option 2
A1

Total number of points scored ____________Score_______

The results of a recent, comprehensive cladistic study of bird evolution led by Maryanskaya and a group of scientists only added fuel to the fire. Based on the analysis of many important specimens located in Poland, Mongolia and Russia, and on the basis of 195 skeletal characters of theropods and early birds, a thorough study of the relationship between theropods and early birds was carried out. Another recently published study led by Zhou and Zhang, based on 201 skeletal features, complements the first. It involves tracking the evolution of birds itself, measuring the supposed evolutionary continuum that exists between dromaeosaurids as a root species on the one hand, and modern birds as the highest group on the other hand. (Note that the root species is immediately outside the assumed evolutionary progression, and is used as a reference point for the “primitive” state, while the top group consists of the most evolved members of the assumed evolutionary progression).

Typical evolutionary claims supporting the existence of “transitional forms” are based on selective evidence - which usually consists of the gradual emergence of external characters, or the development of only one or a few characters. On the contrary, the analysis of the data used to construct a cladogram involves a simultaneous comparison of all significant characters that differ between “primitive” and “evolved” creatures. This paper analyzes new research and uses the same methodology that was used in earlier studies of the proposed evolutionary transitions: from human ancestors to the emergence of humans, from mammalian reptiles to mammals, from fish to amphibians, and from mammals living on land. on land - to the whales.

Method of analysis

Although both the selection of characteristics and some aspects of their assessment contain a certain element of subjectivity, the data set used for cladistic analyzes provides for a relatively objective, partially quantitative analysis of putative evolutionary changes. As usual, in cladistic analyses, the vast majority of anatomical characters are counted as opposites based on the criterion of “presence” or “absence” (1 or 0) in each organism. Only some features are scored according to the increasing occurrence of the feature (0, 1, 2, 3, etc.).

Table 1. Estimated course of evolution from theropods to Archeopteryx and back to the creatures that live on land.

In the cladistic studies reported here, organisms are arranged as “signposts” that lead to the sequential appearance of avian characters, but without the necessary relationships between ancestors and descendants. The hoards and their corresponding constituent elements are listed in Tables 1–4. In Table 1, the four theropod groups serve as one reference point (the root group), and modern birds (not shown in either the cited study or Table 1) as the other reference point. To avoid circular reasoning regarding any assumption of the existence of a general evolutionary process that groups a number of characters (and then saying that the resulting cladogram of the evolutionary tree confirms this proposed evolutionary sequence), each of the 195 characters of this study was equally evaluated and calculated to be independent of each other. Note that the Avialae clade (Table 1) corresponds to the common name “birds.” The order of the clades shown in Table 1 moves backwards from the initial data, so that the inferred course of evolution moves upward, synchronous with the course of evolution shown in Tables 2–4. The presently existing birds, which include ducks and chickens, are attached to the Class Birds in Tables 2 and 4. These five birds form the highest group.

Table 2. Bird evolutionary line with emphasis on flying birds.

Each listed taxon in Table 1 is a primitive sister group of the entire cluster of taxa listed above it. In contrast, the evolutionary course of flying birds (Table 2) follows a less linear, nested, branching sequence. Only six major taxa each constitute a primitive sister group of all the combined taxa above them. Group Gobipteryx-Cathayornis(which itself is complexly branched inside) is related to the group Patagopteryx- modern birds (itself complexly branched inside), and it is believed that the group Confuciusornis presumably the primitive sister group of both combined groups. In Table 3, the association of a simple sister group with each major taxon in relation to its successors (identical only to the bottom of Table 1) obviates the need to describe branching structures. However, the complex, branched relationships that characterize the final stages of bird evolution (Table 4) necessitate the addition of these structures, as was done in Table 2.

Table 3. The emergence of early birds: a shortened version of Table 2.

The main problem with using the second data set is that there is a very large piece of information that is missing. To reduce the likelihood of biases presented in the Avian Characteristics column, two different approaches were used to evaluate the available data. In order to preserve information that relates to the entire course of evolution of flying birds, the complete sequence from Dromaeosauridae to modern birds, despite severe data loss (only 37 of 201 characters were found to be usable, of which 21 were irretrievable), as presented in Table 2. As a result of significant data loss, and also because the clade Gobipteryx-Cathayornis accounts for the majority of this loss, this treasure was excluded from further consideration. The remaining information was divided into Early (Table 3) and Late (Table 4) evolution of flying birds. This greatly reduced data loss, since each data set could now be ordered only according to some missing data points that occur during short intervals of that series of values. In Tables 3 and 4, of the original 201 data points, 131 are now evaluated for analysis.

Analysis of the relationships between theropods and birds

Throughout the theropod-avian sequence (Table 1), there is an almost monotonous sequential appearance of avian characters. However, there is a visible recurrent change in Avian Characters in theropods that immediately predates the first known recognized bird, Archeopteryx. Moreover, closer analysis of the data indicates that the apparent smoothness of the overall sequence is in fact deceptive. First, as always, the process of ordering itself helps evolutionists. Moreover, adding recurrent features smoothes out the overall consistency. Astonishingly, 140 of the total 195 characters change back at least once, and if the four root theropod groups are included, this number increases to 145. Moreover, of the 140 characters that are traced back within the sequence, 64 change back, according to at least twice. Consequently, most basic avian traits do not progress towards the avian state! On the contrary, we have a mixed collection of mosaics, which consists of birds and reptiles.

Now we will consider only progressive signs. This sequence is characterized by sharp jumps in the putative acquisition of avian traits. Note, for example, the doubling of Avian Traits almost twice with the corresponding appearance Eumaniraptora and “C” treasures. There is also a big gap between Dromaeosauridae and Troodontidae. Two hoards that immediately precede Archeopteryx, ironically, in the morphological structure of the skeleton are more bird-like (in relation to modern birds) than the Archeopteryx!

Evolution in the wrong direction

Part of the sequence after Archeopteryx(Table 1), proposed by only a few earlier researchers, is again gaining support. Just imagine the irony of this situation: certain flightless “theropods” ( oviraptorids), including the famous “feathered theropod” Caudipteryx, turned out to be more bird-like than the flying one Archeopteryx:

“Some features of the skull that are observed in oviraptorids(no information that others have oviraptorids this feature of the skull is also present) support our hypothesis regarding the avian status Oviraptorosauria…. This group of characters is absent in flightless theropods, but is present in advanced birds... Despite these similarities to flying birds, oviraptorosaurs do not have any adaptations for flight in their postcranium.[words in italics have been added].”

Table 4. The most recent stages (including the final group) of bird evolution: an abbreviated version of Table 2.

(Note that the adjective avialan refers to the clade avialidae, which, as previously stated, includes all extinct and living birds). A mixture of avian and non-avian characters found in oviraptorosaurs, can only be defended through a separate evolutionary line for oviraptorosaur, outgoing from the main line of descent of birds, which begins with Archeopteryx, followed by numerous evolutionary throwbacks among this supposed “side branch” of evolution:

“If such a connection is considered plausible, then in this case oviraptorosaurs were incapable of flight. Therefore, some postcranial features oviraptorosaurs During the analysis, recurrent changes are recognized as reversals. Examples of such recurrent changes are... (lists some signs that presumably indicate that oviraptorosaurs“transitioned” back to a flightless state). These recurrent changes obviously accompanied the change from a flying mode of life to living on land."

It will hardly surprise anyone to learn that this evolutionary narrative is not at all supported by the fossil record:

“At the moment, it is difficult to propose a scenario that would describe the successive stages of evolution from flying birds to flightless oviraptorosaurs. And yet, accumulated trait evidence suggests that such a radical change in adaptation from flying to land-dwelling may have occurred for the first time early in the evolution of birds."

As a result, evolutionists who are unable to provide the necessary evidence find themselves in an even more difficult position. Not only do they lack the gradual appearance of basic adaptations for flight, but now they also lack the gradual disappearance of these adaptations in the case of the “minor flightless.” oviraptorosaurs!

Theropods and the failed stratomorphic intermediates argument

Some evolutionists insist that evolution can be considered reliable if only because fossils with “intermediate structures” can always be found in the corresponding part of the geological column. Unfortunately, some creationists have also fallen for this trick of false reasoning. The stratomorphic intermediate argument could be considered valid if: (1) the time stratigraphic interval in question contained only one group of potentially considered structural intermediates, and also if (2) the putative structural intermediates would appear only in the appropriate stratigraphic interval where they are required according to evolutionary theory (i.e., connecting the other two groups in the evolutionary sequence).

Let's look at mammalian reptiles. They are probably the main example of stratomorphic intermediates. But imagine what would happen if they never existed or were never discovered. Then evolutionists, following “Darwin's Bulldog,” Thomas Huxley, would probably refer to ancient amphibians as a descendant group of mammals. Some extinct group of amphibians would be described as stratomorphic intermediates that connect non-mammals and mammals. This violates the first condition. In this study, theropods reveal the fallacy of stratomorphic intermediates, since they directly contradict the second condition. They are a remarkable example of organisms that are somewhat suitable to be morphological intermediates in the proposed evolutionary sequence, but which appear in wrong parts of the geological column to be transitional forms.

There is some evidence that suggests that theropods that predate birds (Table 1) appear too late in the standard geological column (Jurassic) to be considered the ancestors of birds. For example, despite the fact that Protoavis Protobird appeared presumably tens of millions of years before Archeopteryx, is more similar to modern birds than to Archeopteryx. The recent discovery of bird-like prints also provides strong evidence that birds appeared in the standard geologic column long before the creatures listed in Tables 1–4:

“The known history of birds begins in the Late Jurassic (approximately 150 million years ago), when Archeopteryx is dated... Here we describe a variety of well-preserved prints with clear avian features in red beds of Argentina that date back to at least the Late Triassic. at least 55 million years earlier than the first known skeletal remains of birds."

Earlier claims regarding the prints being attributed to the Late Triassic Period have been questioned, and as a result the prints have been attributed to non-bird dinosaurs. However, the mentioned authors claim that the recently discovered prints are incomparably more reminiscent of bird prints in structure than the earlier prints.

In any case, it is interesting that some evolutionists acknowledge that theropods (including those listed in Table 1) may not even be suitable indirect ancestors of birds. For example, here's what evolutionist Peter Dobson says:

“I hasten to point out that none of the known small theropods, including Deinonychus, Dromaeosaurus, Velociraptor, Unenlagia, as well as Sinosauropteryx, Protarcheaeopteryx, Caudipteryx in itself has nothing to do with the origin of birds; they are all fossils that date back to the Cretaceous period... and, as such, can at best represent only the structural stages through which the ancestor of birds is supposed to have passed."

“I admit that I surprised myself a little. When ideas become too popular and the siren sound of new iconoclastic ideas becomes too loud, I dig in and start looking at the other side of the idea. I oppose cladistics and the catastrophic extinction of the dinosaurs; I'm more inclined towards endothermic dinosaurs; I'm skeptical about the idea that therapods are the ancestors of birds."

Evolution of flying birds

Let us now turn our attention to the putative line which reaches its apex in modern birds as the highest group. Assuming that Archeopteryx was the first bird, then how did modern birds supposedly evolve from it? When placed in the context of the entire evolutionary history of birds (Table 2, “All Traits”), it becomes apparent that major sequence breaks in the “Avian Trait” both preceded and followed Archeopteryx. As regards only progressive characters, none can be traced all the way from supposedly hereditary ones. dromaeosaurids completely before modern birds. However, the remaining progressive characters in Table 2 indicate a second major discontinuity in the evolution of early birds - namely, between Confuciusornis and its primitive relative Sapeornis. On the other hand, there is a large gap (14.3 vs. 31.3) between Confuciusornis and the least bred members of this advanced kin group.

Close examination of the putative early evolution of birds (Table 3) under a magnifying glass only magnifies and makes the discontinuities in the sequences more obvious. A relatively small step from dromaeosaurids To Archeopteryx, smoothed in the “All Features” column, increases in the “Progressive Features” column. “Bird Sign” doubles from dromaeosaurids To Archeopteryx, then doubling again from Archeopteryx before Rahonavis. In the column “All Signs” from Archeopteryx before Rahonavis there is a chasm (which is four times the size of the “Bird Sign”). From Sapeornis before Confuciusornis there is also a large jump (which almost doubles the “Bird Trait”) in both the “All Traits” column and the “Progressive Traits” column of Table 3. If that weren't enough, 21 of the 131 useful traits used in Table 3 , changed back in the evolutionary sequence at least once.

From Archeopteryx to modern birds

Of course, the data that relates to Archeopteryx(Table 1-3) do not tell the whole story. Interestingly, 19th century evolutionists, apparently following common sense, recognized the fact that Archeopteryx not considered a true species, which fills in the gaps of most of the morphological properties that separate reptiles from birds:

“In retrospect, it seems strange that evolutionary theorists have long been influenced by ancient ideas about harmony. Historically, many fossils were considered not to be part of a lineage if they showed a mixture of early and late characters, since intermediate forms were expected to show perfect intermediary between earlier and later forms. Thus, a fossil such as Archeopteryx, showing a mixture of reptile and bird characters, could not be placed as a transitional stage between these two classes, since all these distinctive characters are not transitional: it was believed that it took place through a gradual and general transformation of the entire animal organism"

According to modern creation scientists, among all known species, there is not a single one leading to Archeopteryx that had structures resembling half-wings and half-legs. But despite the apparent or actual existence of “feathered theropods,” the putative evolutionary origin of feathers remains problematic. In modern times, it is believed that this occurs in a mosaic manner, and this is presumably justified by evolutionary changes in evolutionary pathways related to embryonic development. But, as we noted earlier, embryonic development can completely contradict generally accepted evolutionary schemes, especially the doctrine of “from theropods to birds.” The second inescapable fact is that evolutionists have lowered their standards for what counts as evidence. Having failed to find fossilized animals that show complete continuity between reptiles and birds, they are now forced to piece together “series” of fossilized animals that simply show a diverse set of reptile and bird characteristics.

The most recent stages of bird evolution are also filled with sequence breaks and recurrent changes. Regarding the latter, 29 of the 131 features used in Table 4 are reversed at least once. Imagine how the Bird Characters in Table 4 would be distributed if they were smoothly transitional. “All Traits” scores would range approximately from 50.5 to 62.8 to 75.1 and top out at 87.4 (the modern bird has the lowest Avian Trait score in the “All Traits” column). The corresponding values for Progressive Traits would also start at 50.5, moving to 66.7 and 83.4 before reaching a value of 100 (a modern bird has the lowest Avian Trait value in the Progressive Traits column). The reality behind the Avian Characters relating to the evolution of modern birds (Table 4) is completely different. Between Patagopteryx and its advanced sister group of modern birds Apsaravis, there is a strong gap. This discontinuity appears in both columns of the general overview of the evolution of flying birds (Table 2), as well as in both columns of the detailed overview of recent bird evolution (Table 4).

And finally, the Avian Characters of most of the latter allied groups of modern birds must be considered in their proper light. It should be noted that there is significant variability in the Avian Characteristics of the five recent birds selected. In the “All Traits” column of Table 4, Bird Traits Ichthyornis And Apsaravis only 8 units lower than Anas, but the corresponding distance from Anas before Crax is also 8 units. Therefore, the supposed evolutionary change, from Ichthyornis before Apsaravis and up to modern birds, very small small.

conclusions

It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that both the lineage from theropods to birds and the lineage from Archeopteryx to modern birds are artificial. Both “progressions” are like variegated groups, made up of unrelated organisms and collected together in a sequence. After all, recurrent symptoms are either general or predominant, and very much underestimated due to the huge amount of missing data, irreversible signs usually show a series of sharp jumps themselves.

Moreover, the most bird-like part of the theropod sequence does not belong to the putative ancestors of the first known bird Archeopteryx, but to oviraptosaurus ( oviraptorosaurs), a descendant branch of the “minor flightless theropods”. And of course, the “minor flightlessness” status of these oviraptosaurs ( oviraptorosaurs) raises the question of the need for flying ancestors. The need for evolutionists to involve this complex scenario of events serves reductio ad absurdum(reduction to absurdity) for evolutionary theory. Instead of involving a back-and-forth evolutionary process from land animals to birds and (in the case of oviraptorosaurs) back to land animals, wouldn't it make more sense to simply abandon all evolution and embrace special creation instead! Because the Creator was not obligated to use the nested hierarchy of created living beings, at least in every case, it is not difficult to understand why evolutionists have problems trying to fit “non-avian” and “avian” traits into any kind of evolutionary lines. The irony of this situation is that, contrary to the predictions of those who are happy to use the argument of stratomorphic intermediates, known theropods appear in the wrong place in the stratigraphic column to play the role of ancestors of birds.

Modern birds are also full of breaks in sequence and recurrent changes in characters. Overall, modern birds show no impressive stepwise relationship with supposedly early birds, and even less with Archeopteryx. The variability among modern birds is considerable, and increasing the range of this variability several times would be sufficient to cover the entire range of Avian Characteristics found among birds and listed in Table 2. This is not difficult to understand, given the fact that the extant days (surviving the Flood) biosphere, depleted compared to the biosphere that existed before the Flood.

John Woodmorappe holds a Master's degree in Geology and a Bachelor's degree in Biology from Midwestern State University, USA. He is a science teacher by profession.

Type : test on the topic “Reptiles and Birds”
Item : biology
Class : 7
Compiled by tasks : Gareishina Inna Georgievna

Among large species of crocodiles, some individuals can live up to 120 years; cats rarely live longer than 12 years. How many times longer can a crocodile live? Write down the answer as a number.
Penguins are inhabitants of the southern hemisphere of the Earth. The largest penguin is the emperor, about 1 m tall, and comes to nest on the coldest continent - Antarctica. The smallest - the little penguin, only about 40 cm tall, nests almost on the equator, on the Galapagos Islands. How many centimeters is the emperor penguin taller than the little one? Write down the answer in centimeters, as a number.
The largest bird on Earth is the African ostrich. His height (more than 2.5 m) exceeds the height of a person. He can't fly. Possessing powerful legs, this bird is capable of running at a speed of 60 km per hour. How many kilometers can an ostrich run in 10 minutes? Write down the answer as a number.
The mass of a chicken egg is approximately 60 grams, and an African ostrich egg is 25 times larger. What is the mass of an ostrich egg? Write down the answer as a number.
In the class of reptiles or reptiles, the largest number of species is in the order of lizards, approximately 3,500 species, and in the order of snakes there are 500 fewer species. The order of turtles is approximately 10 times smaller in number than snakes, and the order of crocodiles has 15 times fewer species than turtles. The beaked order includes the tuataria, which survive only in New Zealand; there are 10 times fewer of them than crocodiles. How many species does each reptile order contain? The answer will be four numbers.
The pied flycatcher brings about 500 invertebrate animals to its chicks per day. How many invertebrates will she feed to her chicks in the 16 days until they fly out of the nest? Write down the answer as a number.
The gray heron has 3-7 greenish-blue eggs in a full clutch. How many chicks can a pair of herons have in three years if each clutch contains 6 eggs? Write down the answer as a number.
Sparrows can be considered typical granivorous birds, but they feed their chicks with invertebrate animals, mainly insects. During the period of feeding the chicks, in just two weeks, a pair of sparrows feeds their voracious babies about 1.4 kg of insects, spiders and mollusks. How many grams of invertebrates do sparrows feed their chicks in 1 day? Write down the answer as a number.
The decline in the number of Galapagos tortoises began in the 18th century, and populations are currently being restored by humans. The largest land turtle lives on the Galapagos Islands; the length of its shell can reach one and a half meters, and its weight can reach two hundred kilograms. The largest sea turtle is 50 cm longer, and its weight is 2.5 times greater than that of a land species. What is the mass and body length of a sea turtle? The answer will be two numbers.

Establish a correspondence between the trait and the class of vertebrates for which it is characteristic. To do this, select a position from the second column for each element of the first column.

SIGN A) four-chambered heart B) dry, thin skin, covered with horny scales and plates C) well-developed care for offspring

D) the blood in the heart is mixed

D) body temperature is high and constant

E) three-chambered heart with an incomplete septum in the ventricle

1) Reptiles 2) Birds

The tail helps him hunt. The blow of its tail is dangerous even for large animals. Covered with horny plates, it is as heavy as a log. With its powerful tail, this animal knocks its prey off its feet, throws it up and catches it with its huge toothy mouth. 1) iguana, 2) monitor lizard, 3) crocodile, 4) anaconda, 5) moloch. The answer will be one number.
Adaptations of birds for flight include:

Modified limbs
Good sense of smell
One circle of blood circulation and pulmonary respiration
Hollow bones in the skeleton
Presence of duodenum and rectum
No bladder

The answer will be a series of numbers.

Choose the correct statements. The answer will be a series of numbers.

The respiratory surface of the lizard's lungs is larger than that of the newt
All reptiles have a three-chambered heart
Reptiles lay eggs
In reptiles of the northern regions, live births are more common
The lizard heart has a complete interventricular septum
Reptiles have many sweat and sebaceous glands in their skin.

In the food chain, the kite is a secondary consumer because it:

Heterotroph
Predator
Uses solar energy
Regulates the number of animals it eats
Mineralizes organic residues
Feeds on weak and sick animals

The answer will be a series of numbers.

Significant evolutionary, progressive acquisitions of birds are:

The brain has five sections
Intensive metabolism
Mixed blood in the heart
Bone skull
Beak without teeth
Lightness and strength of the skeleton

The answer will be a series of numbers.

Right answers

Job number	Answer
1	10
2	60
3	10
4	1500
5	3000, 300, 20, 2
6	8000
7	18
8	100
9	200, 500
10	2,1,2,1,2,1
11	3
12	1,4,6
13	1,3,4
14	2,4,6
15	2,5,6

The evolution of the organic world is a long and complex process that takes place at different levels of organization of living matter and flows in different directions. The development of living nature occurred from lower forms with a relatively simple structure to increasingly complex forms. At the same time, within certain groups of organisms, special devices (adaptations) developed, allowing them to exist in specific habitats. For example, many aquatic animals have membranes between their toes that facilitate swimming (newts, frogs, ducks, geese, platypus, etc.).

Analyzing the historical development of the organic world and numerous specific adaptations, the largest Russian evolutionists A. N. Severtsov and I. I. Shmalgauzen identified three main directions of evolution: aromorphosis, ideological adaptation and degeneration.

Aromorphosis (or arogenesis) is called major evolutionary changes leading to a general complication of the structure and functions of organisms and allowing the latter to occupy fundamentally new habitats or significantly increasing the competitive ability of organisms in existing habitats. Aromorphoses make it possible to move into new habitats (that is, enter new adaptation zones). Therefore, aromorphoses are relatively rare phenomena in the living world and are of a fundamental nature, having a great influence on the further evolution of organisms.

An adaptation level or adaptive zone is a certain type of habitat with its characteristic environmental conditions or a complex of certain adaptations characteristic of a particular group of organisms (general living conditions or similar methods of assimilation of some vital resources). For example, the adaptive zone of birds is the development of air space, which provides them with protection from many predators, new ways of hunting for flying insects (where they have no competitors), rapid movement in space, the ability to overcome large obstacles inaccessible to other animals (rivers, seas, mountains, etc.), the ability for long-distance migrations (flights), etc. Therefore, flight is a major evolutionary acquisition (aromorphosis).

The most striking examples of aromorphoses are multicellularity and the emergence of a sexual method of reproduction. Multicellularity contributed to the emergence and specialization of tissues and led to the complication of the morphology and anatomy of many groups of organisms, both plants and animals. Sexual reproduction has significantly expanded the adaptive abilities of organisms (combinative variability).

Aromorphoses provided animals with more efficient methods of nutrition and increased the efficiency of metabolism - for example, the appearance of jaws in animals made it possible to switch from passive to active nutrition; the liberation of the digestive canal from the skin-muscular sac and the appearance of an excretory opening in it fundamentally improved the efficiency of food absorption due to the specialization of its different sections (the appearance of the stomach, sections of the intestine, digestive glands, the rapid removal of unnecessary products). This significantly increased the survival capabilities of organisms even in places with low nutritional resources.

The largest aromorphosis in the evolution of animals was warm-bloodedness, which sharply activated the intensity and efficiency of metabolism in organisms and increased their survival in habitats with low or sharply changing temperatures.

As examples of aromorphoses in the animal world, we can also recall the formation of the internal cavity of organisms (primary and secondary), the appearance of the skeleton (internal or external), the development of the nervous system and especially the complication of the structure and functions of the brain (the appearance of complex reflexes, learning, thinking, a second signal systems in humans, etc.) and many other examples.

In plants, major aromorphoses are: the appearance of a conducting system that connects different parts of the plant into a single whole; the formation of a shoot - a vital organ that provides plants with all aspects of life and reproduction; formation of a seed - an organ of reproduction that arises sexually, the development and maturation of which is ensured by the resources of the entire maternal organism (tree, shrub or other life form of plants) and which has an embryo well protected by the tissues of the seed (gymnosperms and angiosperms); the appearance of a flower that increased the efficiency of pollination, reduced the dependence of pollination and fertilization on and provided protection for the egg.

In bacteria, aromorphosis can be considered the emergence of an autotrophic mode of nutrition (phototrophic and lithotrophic or chemosynthetic), which allowed them to occupy a new adaptation zone - habitats completely devoid of organic food sources or having a deficiency thereof. In bacteria and fungi, aromorphoses include the ability to form certain biologically active compounds (antibiotics, toxins, growth substances, etc.), which significantly increase their competitive ability.

Arogenesis can also occur at the interspecific (or biocenotic) level during the interaction of organisms of different systematic positions. For example, the appearance of cross-pollination and the attraction of insects and birds for this can be considered as aromorphosis. Large biocenotic aromorphoses are: the formation of mycorrhizae (symbiosis of fungi and plant roots) and lichens (combination of fungi and algae). These types of associations allowed the symbionts to live in places where they would never have settled separately (on poor soils, on rocks, etc.). Particularly significant is the union of fungi and algae, which led to the emergence of a new symbiotic life form - lichens, which are morphologically very similar to a single organism resembling plants. The largest aromorphosis of this type is the eukaryotic cell, consisting of different organisms (prokaryotes) that have completely lost their individuality and turned into organelles. The eukaryotic cell has a more active and economical metabolism compared to the prokaryotic cell and ensured the emergence and evolution of the kingdoms of fungi, plants and animals.

Aromorphoses are major events in the evolution of the organic world, and they persist in populations and in further development lead to the emergence of new large groups of organisms and taxa of high rank - orders (orders), classes, types (divisions).

It is assumed that aromorphosis is most likely in initially primitive or less specialized forms of organisms, since they tolerate environmental changes more easily and it is easier for them to adapt to new habitats. Specialized forms, adapted to certain, often quite narrowly limited living conditions, usually die when such conditions change abruptly. That is why in nature, along with highly organized and specialized forms of life, there coexist a large number of relatively primitive organisms (bacteria, fungi, invertebrates and others), which have perfectly adapted to new conditions and are very stable. This is the logic of the evolutionary process.

General degeneration, or catagenesis

These are specific adaptations to certain specific living conditions that form within the same adaptation zone. Idioadaptations appear both during arogenesis and degeneration. These are private adaptations that do not significantly change the level of organization of organisms achieved in the process of evolution, but significantly facilitate their survival in these particular habitats.

For example, if we can consider a flower as the largest aromorphosis in the evolution of the plant world, then the shape and size of the flower are determined by the real conditions in which certain plant species exist, or by their systematic position.

The same applies, for example, to birds. The wing is an aromorphosis. The shape of the wings, flight methods (soaring, flapping) are a series of idioadaptations that do not fundamentally change the morphological or anatomical organization of birds. Idioadaptations include protective coloration, which is widespread in the animal world. Therefore, idioadaptations are often considered as signs of lower taxonomic categories - subspecies, species, or less often genera or families.

The relationship between different directions in evolution

The evolutionary process occurs continuously, and its main directions may change over time.

Aromorphoses or general degeneration, as rare processes in evolution, lead to an increase or decrease in the morphological and physiological organization of organisms and their occupation of a higher or lower adaptive zone. Within these adaptive zones, private adaptations (idioadaptations) begin to actively develop, ensuring a more subtle adaptation of organisms to specific habitats. For example, the emergence of a large group of mycorrhiza-forming fungi allows them to occupy a new adaptation zone associated with a large group of new habitats for fungi and plants. This is a biocenotic aromorphosis, further accompanied by a series of partial adaptations (idioadaptations) - the dispersal of different types of fungi to different host plants (boletus, boletus, boletus, etc.).

In the process of evolution, biological progress can be replaced by regression, aromorphosis - by general degeneration, and all this is accompanied by new idioadaptations. Each aromorphosis and each degeneration causes the dispersal of organisms into new habitats, realized through idioadaptations. This is the relationship between these directions of the evolutionary process. Based on these evolutionary transformations, organisms occupy new ecological niches and populate new habitats, that is, their active adaptive radiation occurs. For example, the emergence of vertebrates onto land (aromorphosis) caused their adaptive radiation and led to the formation of many taxonomic and ecological groups (predators, herbivores, rodents, insectivores, etc.) and new taxa (amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals).

General characteristics of the directions of evolution in terms of changes in the level of organization and the nature of the prosperity of the species.

Convergence and divergence

Analysis of the mechanism of speciation shows that the result of this process is the appearance of one or several (two, three or more) related species.

Considering evolution as a whole, one can see that its result is the entire diversity of organisms living on Earth. Therefore, based on the results of the evolutionary process, two types of evolution can be distinguished - microevolution and macroevolution.

Microevolution is a set of speciation processes in which new (one or more) species of organisms arise from one species.

Microevolution is a kind of “elementary act of evolution”, accompanied by the emergence of a small number of species from one original species.

An example of microevolutionary processes is the emergence of two races of the birch moth moth, different species of finches on the Galapagos Islands, coastal species of gulls on the coast of the Arctic Ocean (from Norway to Alaska), etc.

The development of the “white Ukrainian pig” breed can serve as an example of microevolution implemented by humans.

Thus, the result of microevolution is the emergence of new species from the original species, which is achieved through divergence.

Divergence is a process of divergence of characteristics, as a result of which new species appear or species that arose in the process of evolution differ from each other in various characteristics due to the adaptation of these species to different conditions of existence.

Macroevolution is the totality of all evolutionary processes as a result of which all the diversity of the organic world arose; these processes occur not only at the level of species, but also at the level of genus, family, class, etc.

The result of macroevolution is the entire diversity of the modern organic world, which arose both through divergence and convergence (convergence of characteristics).

Species that arose from different groups of organisms (for example, classes) can be convergent, that is, along with certain differences, they have common characteristics associated with adaptability to the same environment. Examples of convergent species are the shark, whale, and ichthyosaur (fossil reptile). These species have a fish-like shape and fins, as they are adapted to the aquatic environment. Another example of convergent organisms are butterflies, birds and bats, as they have wings and are adapted to an air-terrestrial lifestyle.

Consequently, during macroevolution, both divergence and convergence are possible.

Over the course of long historical development, macroevolution led to a dramatic change in the organic world as a whole. Thus, the modern organic world differs significantly from that of the Proterozoic or Mesozoic eras.

Paths and directions of evolution

As noted above, evolution occurs in two ways - divergent and convergent, and as a result of these processes, different species arise both in terms of their level of organization and the nature of adaptation to habitats. Therefore, three evolutionary paths are distinguished according to the nature of changes in the level of organization of emerging organisms: idioadaptation, aromorphosis and degeneration.

1. Aromorphosis (arogenesis) is a path of evolution in which the level of organization of organisms increases compared to the original forms.

Aromorphoses include: the emergence of photosynthetic organisms from heterotrophs; the emergence of multicellular organisms from unicellular ones; the emergence of psilophytes from algae; the appearance of angiosperms with the presence of double fertilization and new shells of gymnosperm seeds; the emergence of organisms capable of feeding their young with milk, etc.

2. Idioadaptation (allogenesis) is a path of evolution in which new species appear that are no different in level of organization from the original species.

The species that emerged during idioadaptations differ from the original ones in characteristics that allow them to exist normally in different living conditions. Idioadaptations include the appearance of different types of finches on the Galapagos Islands, various rodents living in different conditions (hares, gophers, mouse-like rodents), and other examples.

3. Degeneration (catagenesis) is a path of evolution in which the general level of newly emerged organisms decreases.

In some sources, evolutionary paths are called directions. In this case, it is necessary to indicate: directions of evolution according to the nature of changes in the level of organization, since there are directions of evolution according to the nature of prosperity. Based on this feature, two directions are distinguished - biological progress and biological regression.

Biological progress is a direction of evolution in which the number of populations, subspecies increases and the range (habitat) expands, while this group of organisms is in a state of constant speciation.

Currently, mammals, arthropods (from animals), and angiosperms (from plants) are in a state of biological progress. Biological progress does not mean an increase in the level of organization of organisms, but does not exclude it either.

Biological regression is a direction of evolution in which the range and number of organisms decrease, the rate of speciation slows down (the number of populations, subspecies, and species decreases).

Currently, reptiles, amphibians (from animals), and ferns (from plants) are in a state of biological regression. At the same time, human activity has a great influence on the state of progress or regression of organisms. Thus, many animal species have become extinct due to human influence (for example, Steller's cow seal, aurochs, etc.).

Adaptation of organisms to environmental conditions, its types and relativity

The first scientifically based definition of the species was given by Charles Darwin. Currently, this concept has been clarified from the standpoint of all modern theories, including from a genetic standpoint. In the modern interpretation, the formulation of the concept of “species” is as follows:

A species is a collection of all individuals that have the same hereditary morphological and physiological characteristics, are capable of freely interbreeding and produce normal fertile offspring, have the same genome, the same origin, occupy a certain living area and are adapted to the conditions of existence in it.

The criteria for the species and its ecological characteristics will be discussed below. In this subsection we present the mechanism of speciation.

Within populations, different individuals of these populations develop different characteristics due to mutational (hereditary) variability, therefore all individuals of a given population have certain differences from each other.

Traits that appear in individual individuals can be either beneficial or harmful to that organism in a given habitat. In the process of life, as a rule, those individuals that are more adapted to a given habitat survive. In individuals of different populations, these signs will be different, especially when the conditions of their habitats are very different.

Over time, the characteristics that distinguish individuals of one population from another accumulate, and the differences between them become more and more significant. As a result of these processes, several subspecies arise from one original species (their number is equal to the number of populations of the species living in different environmental conditions - 2, 3, etc.).

If different populations, located in different conditions of existence, are sufficiently isolated from each other, then mixing of characteristics due to hybridization of individuals does not occur. The differences between individuals of different populations become so significant that it is possible to state the emergence of new species (their individuals no longer interbreed and do not produce full-fledged fertile offspring).

In the process of speciation, new species arise that turn out to be well adapted to the conditions of their existence, which has always surprised and delighted people, and made religious people admire the “wisdom of the creator.” Let us consider the essence of the phenomenon of fitness, as well as the relativity of fitness.

Adaptation refers to certain characteristics of an organism that allow it to survive in given specific environmental conditions.

A striking example of adaptability is the white coloration of the mountain hare in winter. This color makes it invisible against the background of white snow cover.

In the process of evolution, many organisms have developed characteristics that make them very well adapted to their environment. Evolutionary theory revealed the cause and mechanism of the organism's adaptation to the conditions of its habitat and showed the materialistic essence of this process.

The reason for the appearance of adaptations to environmental conditions is hereditary variability that occurs under the influence of environmental conditions.

The resulting mutations, if they are useful, are fixed in the offspring due to the better survival of individuals possessing these characteristics.

A classic example of the emergence of adaptation in organisms to their environment was shown in the works of Charles Darwin.

The birch moth, a moth with a light yellow color, lives in England. Against the background of a light birch trunk, these butterflies are invisible, so most of them are preserved because they are invisible to birds.

If birch trees grow in the area of an enterprise that emits soot, then their trunks darken. Against their background, light-colored butterflies become noticeable, so they are easily eaten by birds. During the long temporary existence of the species of these butterflies, forms with dark colors appeared due to mutations. Dark-colored forms survived better under new conditions than light-colored ones. Thus, in England, two subspecies of moth butterflies (light and dark-colored forms) arose.

Reconstruction of production and improvement of technology taking into account the requirements led to the fact that enterprises stopped emitting soot and changing the color of birch trunks. This led to the fact that the dark-colored forms were not adapted to the new conditions, and the trait they acquired became not only not useful, but even harmful. On this basis, we can conclude that the fitness of organisms is relative: a strong, even short-term, change in environmental conditions can turn an organism adapted to its environment into an unadapted one: for example, a white hare, if the snow cover melts too early, will be more noticeable against the background darker field than if it were painted in a “summer” (gray) color.

There are several types of adaptation of organisms. Let's look at some of them.

1. Protective coloration - a color that allows the organism to be invisible against the background of the environment.

Examples: green coloration of aphids against the background of green cabbage leaves; dark coloring of the back of the fish on a dark background when viewed from above and light coloring of the belly on a light background when viewed from below; fish living in thickets of aquatic vegetation have a striped color (pike), etc.

2. Mimicry and camouflage.

Mimicry is when an organism is shaped like another organism. An example of mimicry is the wasp fly; the shape of its body resembles a wasp and thereby warns of a danger that does not exist, since this fly does not have a sting.

Camouflage consists of the fact that the organism takes the form of some object in the environment and becomes invisible.

An example is stick insects - insects shaped like fragments of plant stems; there are insects that have a leaf-like shape, etc.

3. Warning coloring - bright coloring that warns of danger. Examples: coloring of poisonous ladybugs, bees, wasps, bumblebees, etc.

4. Special adaptations of plants for the implementation of pollination processes. Wind-pollinated plants have long, hanging stamens, elongated stigmas of pistils sticking out in different directions with devices for collecting pollen, and other forms. Insect-pollinated plants have inflorescences, bright colors and exotic flower shapes to attract a specific type of insect, with the help of which pollination is realized.

5. Special forms of animal behavior - threatening poses of sometimes harmless and sometimes dangerous reptiles, an ostrich burying its head in the sand, etc.

To summarize, it can be noted that due to the accumulation of differences arising due to mutations, the formation of new species adapted to their environment is possible, but this fitness is relative, since a change in conditions leads to a loss of the organism’s adaptability to a given environment.

Lesson objectives:

To ensure that students acquire knowledge about the life processes of birds, about the structural features of their internal organs in connection with their functions and adaptability to flight.
Show the complexity of the organization of the internal structure of birds compared to reptiles.
To teach to recognize the organ systems of the bird class, to establish the relationship between the structure and function of organs.
To teach how to identify the adaptability of organisms to their environment.

Lesson type: lesson of learning new material.

Lesson format: a lesson in acquiring new knowledge through independent work, group work, and partial search method.

Equipment:

bird skeleton, model “Vertebrate Brain”;
tables “Poultry class. Pigeon", "Main classes of vertebrates"

DURING THE CLASSES

I. Organizational moment

II. Updating of reference knowledge

“An ounce of experience and labor is worth more than a ton of theory.” (Dewey).

Millions of years ago the first birds appeared. And the hitherto gloomy world, inhabited only by dinosaurs, resounded with birdsong. And millions of years later, a man walked the earth who was able to appreciate this singing. The man raised his head, and there was a lark in the sky! Sings, sings, flutters its wings!
The man raised his head up and saw a stork that had built a nest on the top of a tall oak tree, just above the roof of his house. The stork stands on one leg, clicks its beak, knocks out fractions, and wants to please the stork!
The man raised his head up - and there the eagle soars, freely, easily! “If only I could do this,” the man thought, built wings and threw himself down from the bell tower. He threw himself down more than once before he soared up, relying not on the strength of his muscles, but on the strength of his mind. And aviation was born. Airplanes fly faster than sound, far away from the birds. But in terms of flight efficiency, birds are unattainable. A titmouse flies 100 km on one gram of fat!
Young navigators are graduating from military schools. A ship or plane can take you to any point on earth. But birds, returning to us after wintering, find landmarks known only to them and land exactly on the same clearing from which they started in the fall!
Birds see perfectly, and it’s not for nothing that we say: “Vigilant as a falcon!” They hear and sing perfectly! The autumn garden is boring without them, and we rejoice at their return in the spring. What can I say! Birds are birds!
Today in class you and I will be young researchers, and I will be your supervisor. We will have to solve a difficult problem together:

What features of the internal structure allow birds to fly.

But we must remember from the material studied:

What features of the external structure allow birds to fly into the sky?