Problem-based learning is a type of learning characterized by the creative “discovery” of knowledge by students. The place of problem-based learning is a lesson in learning new material on any subject content. The success of using the problem-based method depends on the interested position of the teacher and the high internal motivation of students.

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Problem-based learning technology.

“Children learn better and a thousand times more successfully when they are given the opportunity to independently explore the basics of the material they are learning.”

Peter Kline

The technology of problem-based learning is not new: it became widespread in the 20s and 30s in Soviet and foreign schools. Problem-based learning is based on the theoretical assumptions of the American philosopher, psychologist and teacher J. Dewey (1859 - 1952), who founded an experimental school in Chicago in 1894, in which the curriculum was replaced by play and work activities. Classes in reading, counting, and writing were carried out only in connection with the needs - instincts that arose spontaneously in children, as they developed physiologically. Dewey identified four instincts for learning: social, constructive, artistic expression, and investigative.

To satisfy these instincts, the child was provided with the following sources of knowledge: words, works of art, and technical devices. Children were involved in play and practical activities - work.

In-depth research in the field of problem-based learning began in the 60s. The idea and principles of problem-based learning in line with the study of the psychology of thinking were developed by Soviet psychologists S. L. Rubinshtein, D. N. Bogoyavlensky, N. A. Menchinskaya, A. M. Matyushkin, and in application to school education by such didactics as M. A Danilov, M. N. Skatkin. T.V. Kudryavtsev, D.V. Vilkeev, Yu.K. Babansky, M.I. Makhmutov and I.Ya. Lerner dealt with these issues a lot. Research in this area is now being conducted by other representatives of pedagogical science.

Problem-based learning has become a response to the challenge posed to pedagogy by the learning process itself, the changing conditions of human life and activity, and the person himself with his desire for self-improvement. In the pedagogical literature there are a number of attempts to define this phenomenon.

By problem-based learning, V. Okon understands “a set of actions such as organizing problem situations, formulating problems, providing students with the necessary help in solving problems, checking these solutions and, finally, leading the process of systematizing and consolidating acquired knowledge.” Okon V. Fundamentals of problem-based learning. - M.: Education, 1986.

By problem-based learning, D.V. Vilkeev means the nature of learning when it is given some features of scientific knowledge.

I. Ya. Lerner sees the essence of problem-based learning in the fact that “the student, under the guidance of the teacher, takes part in solving new cognitive and practical problems for him in a specific system that corresponds to the educational goals of the school.” Lerner I.Ya. Issues of problem-based learning at the All-Union Pedagogical Readings.//Soviet Pedagogy, 1986.-No. 7.

T.V. Kudryavtsev sees the essence of the process of problem-based learning in putting forward didactic problems to students, in solving them and in students mastering generalized knowledge and principles of problem tasks. This understanding is also found in the works of Yu. K. Babansky.

Based on a generalization of practice and analysis of the results of theoretical research, M. I. Makhmutov gives the following definition of the concept of “problem-based learning”: “Problem-based learning is a type of developmental education that combines systematic independent search activity of students with their assimilation of ready-made conclusions of science, and a system of methods built taking into account goal setting and the principle of problematic nature; the process of interaction between teaching and learning is focused on the formation of students’ cognitive independence, stability of learning motives and mental (including creative) abilities in the course of their assimilation of scientific concepts and methods of activity, determined by a system of problem situations.” Makhmutov M.I. Problem-based learning. Basic questions of theory.-M.: Pedagogy, 1995.

Today, problem-based learning is understood as a form of organizing educational activities that involves the creation, under the guidance of a teacher, of problem situations and the active independent activity of students to solve them, as a result of which the acquisition of knowledge, skills, abilities and the development of thinking abilities occurs.

In problem-based learning, the teacher’s activity consists in the fact that he, giving an explanation of the content of the most complex concepts when necessary, systematically creates problem situations, informs students of facts and organizes their educational and cognitive activities. Based on the analysis of facts, students independently draw conclusions and generalizations, formulate (with the help of the teacher) definitions of concepts, rules, or independently apply known knowledge in a new situation. In problem-based learning, the teacher systematically organizes students’ independent work to acquire new knowledge and skills, repeat what has been learned, and practice skills. Students themselves acquire new knowledge, they develop skills of mental operations and actions, develop attention, creative imagination, guesswork, and develop the ability to discover new knowledge and find new ways of acting by putting forward hypotheses and justifying them.

Stages of problem-based learning technology:

1. Statement of educational problem; organization of a problem situation. The result of this stage is the difficulty of students and the formulation of a problematic question, which will be the goal of the lesson.

2. Finding a solution to the problem:

Through dialogue;

Proposing hypotheses.

3. Testing hypotheses, starting with a false one.

4. Formulation of the rule, method; comparing it with a scientific example in a textbook.

5. Training in posing educational questions (problematic).

6. Carrying out control and verification work with the inclusion of tasks of a problematic nature:

Pose a problematic question;

Make a hypothesis;

Prove it.

The most optimal is the following structure of a problem lesson:

Problematic situation.

Problem formulation.

Proposing hypotheses.

Proof or refutation of hypotheses.

Checking the correctness of decisions (reflection-self-analysis).

Reproduction of new material (expression of decision).

Let's look at each stage of the problem lesson.

I. Problem situation.

Conditions for creating a problem situation.

1. The teacher must know:

Search methods of teaching.

Knowledge of factual material (deep and strong).

The technology of asking questions that “expose” contradictions before
by students.

- Operating with words and terms familiar to students.

2. Take into account the age characteristics of students, their level of development,
intellectual capabilities (in the first and second grades it is necessary to teach children to answer and formulate problematic questions themselves), to be able to find different approaches to the classification of objects, words, to have different points of view on the same plot, phenomenon, to highlight the main thing. And third- and fourth-graders will now be able to independently organize their activities to acquire knowledge and find means to solve a specific educational problem.

3. The problem should be quite difficult, but feasible, relying on previous knowledge, skills, and abilities.

According to the emotional response, the reaction of students, E.L. Melnikova identified 2 types of problem situations:

With surprise (different opinions about doing the same thing
tasks).

With difficulty (practical task on new material with which
the guys can't handle it).

Ways to create a problem situation (according to M.I. Makhmutov).

When students encounter life phenomena, facts,
requiring theoretical explanation (a problematic situation arises when a teacher deliberately confronts students’ life ideas with facts that they do not have enough experience or knowledge to explain).

When organizing practical work for students.

Encouraging students to compare, contrast, and contrast.

For research assignments.

Techniques for creating a problem situation.

1 . Unintentional - student error.

2. Intentional - problematic question “Is it possible...”; false conclusion - the teacher says: “I believe that ..., what do you think?”;analogies (For example, form a new word from the words “fisherman” and “catch”, use the example: it flies itself - an airplane); using contradictory information (For example, “Choose the correct answer:Noun...a) Designates an object or its sign. B) Answers the question “Who?” or "What?" c) Denotes an object or natural phenomenon, answers the questions “Who?” or "What?")

Questions to understand the contradiction:

What surprised you? What interesting things did you notice? What facts have poured in?

How many different opinions are there in the class? What did you think at first?

What did you expect? What actually happened?

Were you able to complete this task? What's the problem?

What did you want to do? What knowledge did you apply? Is the task completed?

II) Formulation of the educational problem:

The problem can be stated as:

Lesson topic (“ Spelling of prefixes and prepositions»).

A question, the answer to which will be new knowledge (How to divide the amount by a number?

The best way to pose a problem is if the students themselves voice it. But if they cannot understand the contradiction and formulate the problem, then the teacher can use two types of dialogue:

Encouraging (encourages awareness of the contradiction and formulation of the problem (“Are you surprised? Why? What interesting things did you notice? What questions arise?»).

Leading (Questions and tasks that are feasible for the student, which, step by step, lead him to an awareness of the problem (“Remember", "Compare", "Analyze").

III) When putting forward hypotheses

The teacher “guides” the students with the help of guiding judgments:

Let's assume...

In what order will you solve the problem...

Have your say

What guesses and assumptions do you have?

If the students have not put forward their own hypotheses, then the teacher offers his own (among them there may be deliberately erroneous ones).

IV) When proving or disproving hypotheses.

Techniques:

Observation and analysis.

Comparison, identification of common features.

Selection by exclusion(“This is not suitable because...”).

A combination of observation and experience.

To put forward hypotheses, prove them and refute them, students should develop such practical skills as:

ability to set goals;

find and formulate contradictions;

put forward and justify hypotheses;

argue, reason, compare your opinion with the statements of others;

draw up a plan for solving or completing a task;

check and evaluate your actions.

V) Checking the correctness of solutions.

Techniques

1. Comparison with the formulation of the rule in the textbook, a ready-made action plan.

2. Formulation of the conclusion using tables, diagrams, algorithms and memos.

3. Carrying out practical tasks on this topic.

VI) Reproduction of knowledge.

This stage is not strictly necessary, but highly desirable, since:

deepens understanding of new material;

promotes the formation of visual-figurative thinking;

develops active speech and creative abilities.

This is the creativity of students, which is ensured by performing productive tasks of three types:

to formulate (topics, questions on the topic);

reference signal (symbol, diagram, reference words);

(For example, С ь Г - divides, С ь С - means softness.)

artistic image: metaphor, riddle, poem.

(For example, We are no longer kids, we know how to write ZHI-SHI.)

These tasks can be completed both during class and at home, if desired.

At the stages: putting forward hypotheses, proving or refuting them, expressing a solution, students can work independently, in pairs, microgroups.

The success of a problem lesson depends on:

Students' awareness of the learning task.

A clear formulation of the problem.

Children's knowledge of supporting material.

Children’s ability to express their point of view and draw conclusions

Thus:

Problem-based learning is a type of learning characterized by the creative “discovery” of knowledge by students.

Place of problem-based learning: this is a lesson in learning new material using
any subject content.

Purpose of problem-based learning:

development of students' intelligence and creative abilities;

formation of solid knowledge;

increasing motivation through the emotional coloring of the lesson;

education of an active personality.

The success of using the problem-based method largely depends on the interested position of the teacher and the high internal motivation of students. In the process of using problem-based learning, both the assimilation of material and the development of mental activity occur.

The main result of using problem-based learning technology is that a school graduate is oriented in modern values, gains experience in creative activity, and is ready for interpersonal and intercultural cooperation.

To narrow down the search results, you can refine your query by specifying the fields to search for. The list of fields is presented above. For example:

You can search in several fields at the same time:

Logical operators

The default operator is AND.
Operator AND means that the document must match all elements in the group:

research development

Operator OR means that the document must match one of the values ​​in the group:

study OR development

Operator NOT excludes documents containing this element:

study NOT development

Search type

When writing a query, you can specify the method in which the phrase will be searched. Four methods are supported: search taking into account morphology, without morphology, prefix search, phrase search.
By default, the search is performed taking into account morphology.
To search without morphology, just put a “dollar” sign in front of the words in the phrase:

$ study $ development

To search for a prefix, you need to put an asterisk after the query:

study *

To search for a phrase, you need to enclose the query in double quotes:

" research and development "

Search by synonyms

To include synonyms of a word in the search results, you need to put a hash " # " before a word or before an expression in parentheses.
When applied to one word, up to three synonyms will be found for it.
When applied to a parenthetical expression, a synonym will be added to each word if one is found.
Not compatible with morphology-free search, prefix search, or phrase search.

# study

Grouping

In order to group search phrases you need to use brackets. This allows you to control the Boolean logic of the request.
For example, you need to make a request: find documents whose author is Ivanov or Petrov, and the title contains the words research or development:

Approximate word search

For an approximate search you need to put a tilde " ~ " at the end of a word from a phrase. For example:

bromine ~

When searching, words such as "bromine", "rum", "industrial", etc. will be found.
You can additionally specify the maximum number of possible edits: 0, 1 or 2. For example:

bromine ~1

By default, 2 edits are allowed.

Proximity criterion

To search by proximity criterion, you need to put a tilde " ~ " at the end of the phrase. For example, to find documents with the words research and development within 2 words, use the following query:

" research development "~2

Relevance of expressions

To change the relevance of individual expressions in the search, use the " sign ^ " at the end of the expression, followed by the level of relevance of this expression in relation to the others.
The higher the level, the more relevant the expression is.
For example, in this expression, the word “research” is four times more relevant than the word “development”:

study ^4 development

By default, the level is 1. Valid values ​​are a positive real number.

Search within an interval

To indicate the interval in which the value of a field should be located, you should indicate the boundary values ​​in parentheses, separated by the operator TO.
Lexicographic sorting will be performed.

Such a query will return results with an author starting from Ivanov and ending with Petrov, but Ivanov and Petrov will not be included in the result.
To include a value in a range, use square brackets. To exclude a value, use curly braces.

Conceptual foundations: I. Problem-based learning is a type of learning in which the teacher, systematically creating problem situations and organizing students’ activities to solve educational problems, provides an optimal combination of their independent search activities with the assimilation of ready-made scientific findings.

III. General functions: 1. Students’ assimilation of a system of knowledge and methods of mental and practical activity. 2. Development of cognitive independence and creative abilities of students. 3. Formation of dialectical materialistic thinking in children.

Special functions: 1. Developing skills for creative assimilation of knowledge and the ability to solve educational problems. 2. Formation of skills for the creative application of knowledge and the ability to solve educational problems.

Special functions: 3. Formation and accumulation of experience in creative activity (mastery of methods of scientific research, practical problem solving). 4. Formation of learning motives, social, moral and cognitive needs.

IV. Features: 1. Independent solution of educational problems (consciousness, depth, strength of knowledge, development of logical-theoretical thinking). 2. Transformation of knowledge into beliefs (development of critical, creative, dialectical thinking).

3. Practice as a source of new knowledge and as a sphere of implementation of learned methods of activity. 4. A combination of different types of independent work. 5. Dynamism - one problem situation turns into another.

6. Individualization – the presence of educational problems of varying complexity; individual perception of the problem. 7. High emotional activity of children - individual acceptance of the problem, the relationship of active mental activity with the sensory-emotional sphere of mental activity.

Types: 1. Scientific creativity - search and discovery by students of a new rule, law, evidence; the basis is the formulation and solution of theoretical educational problems.

Types: 2. Practical creativity - searching for a way to apply known knowledge in a new situation, design, invention; the basis is the formulation and solution of practical educational problems.

Types: 3. Artistic creativity - artistic reflection of reality based on creative imagination (drawing, playing, playing music, etc.).

Levels: 1. Level of ordinary activity - students’ perception of the teacher’s explanations, assimilation of a pattern of mental action in a problem situation, performance of independent work, exercises of a reproducing nature.

Levels: 2. Level of semi-independent activity - application of acquired knowledge in a new situation, participation of children in a joint search with the teacher for a way to solve a given educational problem.

Levels: 3. Level of independent activity - performing independent work of a reproductive and exploratory nature, when the student independently applies acquired knowledge in a new situation, constructs a solution to a problem of an average level of complexity.

Levels: 4. Level of creative activity - performing independent work that requires creative imagination, logical analysis, discovery of a new solution, independent proof.

Elements of problem-based learning: 1. A problematic question is a question that causes intellectual difficulties for students, since the answer to it is not contained in the students’ previous knowledge or in the information presented.

Elements of problem-based learning: 2. A problem-based task is a form of organizing educational material with given conditions and unknown data, which involves active mental activity of students: analysis of facts, identification of the causes of the origin of objects, analysis of cause-and-effect relationships.

Elements of problem-based learning: 3. Problem-based task - an assignment or instruction to students on their independent search and cognitive activity aimed at obtaining the required result (search, writing, invention, etc.).

Elements of problem-based learning: 4. Problem situation - a state of mental difficulty for students caused by the insufficiency of previously acquired knowledge and methods of activity to solve a cognitive problem, task or educational problem.

Types of problem situations: 1. Confrontation with the need to use previously acquired knowledge in new practical conditions. 2. The contradiction between a theoretically possible way to solve a problem and its practical impracticability or inexpediency.

Types of problem situations: 3. Contradiction between the practically achieved result of completing a task and the lack of knowledge for its theoretical justification. 4. Students’ ignorance of the solution method, inability to answer a problematic question, awareness of insufficient previous knowledge to explain a new fact.

Teacher's activities 1. Creates a problem situation 2. Organizes reflection on the problem and its formulation. 3. Organizes a search for a hypothesis. Student activities 1. Recognize the contradiction in the phenomenon being studied. 2. Formulate the problem. 3. They put forward hypotheses. 4. Organizes testing of hypotheses. 4. Test hypotheses in experiments, problem solving, and analysis. 5. Organizes generalization 5. Analyzes results and application. tats, draw conclusions, apply knowledge.

A country:

Citizenship = USSR, Russia

Scientific field: Place of work:

Institute of Theory and History of Pedagogy RAO

Academic degree:

Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences

Academic title: Known as:

outstanding teacher

Lerner Isaac Yakovlevich(April 4 – March 1) - Soviet teacher.

Biography

AND I. Lerner lost his parents due to pogroms during the Civil War. In 1939 he graduated from the Faculty of History of Moscow State University. Since 1937, he taught at various universities of the RSFSR, and was an associate professor and head of department. Participant of the Great Patriotic War. He was repressed under Article 58.10 in 1950 and spent five years in the Ivdel general regime camp. He was accused of making two statements in a conversation with an acquaintance - about the undemocratic nature of elections and about the need to establish a minimum wage for collective farmers per workday. Since 1959 he has been working at the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR. Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor. Corresponding member of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR since December 20, 1990, full member of the Russian Open Society since June 15, 1992. Member of the Department of Philosophy of Education and Theoretical Pedagogy. Honored Scientist of the RSFSR (1987). From 1985 to 1991, he led the development of the theory of constructing a modern school textbook. Son Georgy Isaakovich Lerner continues the educational traditions of his father, candidate of pedagogical sciences, head. laboratory of biology of the Moscow Institute of Open Education. I.Ya. died Lerner was buried in Vostryakovskoye Cemetery in 1996.

Contribution to the development of pedagogy

AND I. Lerner is one of the developers of problem-based learning. He revealed the didactic foundations and developed a system of teaching methods. Revealed the connection between teaching methods, organizational forms, means and techniques of teaching. Justified the composition and structure of educational content adequate to social experience. Developed a holistic concept of the educational process as a system.

Classification of teaching methods

1. Information receptive method. Teacher's activities. Presentation of information (by the teacher or his substitute). Organization of student actions with the object of study. Student activity. Perception of knowledge. Awareness of knowledge. Memorization (mostly voluntary).
2. Reproductive method. Teacher's activities. Drawing up and presenting a task to reproduce knowledge and methods of mental and practical activity. Management and control of implementation. Student activity. Updating knowledge. Reproduction of knowledge and methods of action based on models shown by others (teacher, book, TSO). Voluntary and involuntary memorization (depending on the nature of the task)
3. Method of problem presentation. Teacher's activities. Statement of the problem and disclosure of an evidence-based way to solve it. Student activity. Perception of knowledge. Awareness of knowledge and problems. Attention to consistency and control over the degree of persuasiveness of the solution to the problem. Mental forecasting of the next steps of the decision logic. Memorization (largely involuntary)
4. Heuristic method. Teacher's activities. Statement of problems. Drawing up and presenting tasks for performing individual stages of solving cognitive and practical problem problems. Planning the solution steps. Management of student activities (correction and creation of problem situations). Student activity. Perception of the task that forms part of the task. Understanding the conditions of the problem. Updating knowledge about ways to solve similar problems. Independently solving part of the problem. Self-control during the decision process and checking its results. Predominance of involuntary memorization of task-related material. Reproduction of the course of the solution and its independent.
5. Research method. Teacher's activities. Drawing up and presenting problematic tasks to find solutions. Monitoring the progress of the decision. Student activity. Perception of a problem or independent perception of a problem. Understanding the conditions of the problem. Planning stages of research (solutions). Planning research methods at each stage. Self-control during the research process and its completion. Predominance of involuntary memorization. Reproduction of the research process, motivation of its results.

Proceedings

• Lerner I.Ya. Contents and methods of teaching history in grades V - VI of evening (shift) school. - M., 1963;
• Lerner I.Ya. Problem-based learning. - M., 1974.
• Lerner I.Ya. The learning process and its patterns. – M., 1980.
• Lerner I.Ya. Didactic foundations of teaching methods. –M., 1981.
• Lerner I.Ya. Human factor and functions of the content of education // Soviet pedagogy. - 1987. - No. 11
• Lerner I.Ya. Theory of the modern learning process, its significance for practice // Soviet pedagogy. - 1989. - No. 11
• Lerner I.Ya. Pedagogical notes from behind bars // Soviet pedagogy. - 1990. - No. 12
• Lerner I.Ya. Painful points of the learning process // Soviet pedagogy. - 1991. - No. 5.
• Lerner I.Ya. Developmental education from a didactic perspective // ​​Pedagogy. - 1996. - No. 2
• Didactics of secondary school / Ed. M.N. Skatkina, I.Ya. Lerner. - M., 1975.
• Theoretical foundations of the learning process in Soviet school /Ed. V. V. Kraevsky, I. Ya. Lerner. - M., 1989.

Notes

Links

• International scientific and practical conference "Classical didactics and modern education", dedicated to the 90th anniversary of the birth of I.Ya. Lerner. Moscow, April 9-10, 2007
• Video by I.Ya.Lerner about creative thinking
• Video by I.Ya. Lerner about school reforms

Categories:

• Personalities in alphabetical order
• Scientists by alphabet
• Born on April 4
• Born in 1917
• Deaths on March 1
• Died in 1996
• Died in Moscow
• Teachers of the USSR
• Repressed in the USSR

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See what “Lerner, Isaac Yakovlevich” is in other dictionaries:

- (b. 1917) Russian teacher, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1992). Works on didactics, including on problems of educational content, teaching methods, school textbook theory... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (1917 1996), teacher, academician of the Russian Academy of Education (1992). Works on didactics, including problems of the content of education, teaching methods, and the theory of the school textbook. * * * LERNER Isaac Yakovlevich LERNER Isaac Yakovlevich (b. 1917), Russian teacher,… … encyclopedic Dictionary

Lerner, Isaac Yakovlevich- (1917 1996) teacher, full member of the Russian Academy of Education (1992, corresponding member of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR since 1990). Honored Scientist of the RSFSR (1987). Since 1937 he taught at various universities of the RSFSR. Since 1959 in the APN system. L. developed the theory of problem-based learning. Revealed... ...

LERNER Isaac Yakovlevich- , teacher, academician. RAO (1992, member of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR since 1990), Dr. ped. Sciences (1971), prof. (1990). Honored Scientist of the RSFSR (1987). In 1939 he graduated from history. ft MSU. Since 1937 he taught in pedagogical education. universities... Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia - (1909 1974) Soviet chess player, master of sports of the USSR (1945). Journalist. Judge of the All-Union category. Author of many articles on various chess issues. Five-time champion of Kyiv. Contents 1 Sports achievements 2 Books ... Wikipedia

Boris Yakovlevich Ratner (1909 1974) Soviet chess player, master of sports of the USSR (1945). Journalist. Judge of the All-Union category. Author of many articles on various chess issues. Five-time champion of Kyiv. Contents 1 Sports achievements 2 Books ... Wikipedia

Shamova, Tatyana Ivanovna- (b. 1924) Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences (1978), Professor (1980), Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Education (1996; Department of Higher Education), Dean of the Faculty of Advanced Studies and Professional Training, Head. Department of the Institute for Advanced Studies... ... Pedagogical terminological dictionary

Problem-based learning is based on students acquiring new knowledge by solving theoretical and practical problems, tasks in problematic situations created for this purpose.

The famous Polish scientist V. Okon in his book “Fundamentals of Problem-Based Learning” writes that the more students strive in the course of their work to get on the path followed by the researcher, the better the results achieved. Domestic psychologists T.V. Kudryavtsev, A.M. Matyushkin, Z.I. Kalmykova and others developed the psychological foundations of the so-called problematic training in its various modifications. Its essence is as follows. Students are presented with a problem, a cognitive task, and students (with the direct participation of the teacher or independently) explore ways and means of solving it. They build a hypothesis, outline and discuss ways to test its truth, argue, conduct experiments, observations, analyze their results, reason, prove. This includes, for example, tasks for the independent “discovery” of rules, laws, formulas, theorems (independent derivation of a law of physics, a spelling rule, a mathematical formula, the discovery of a method for proving a geometric theorem, etc.).

Problem-based learning includes several stages:

1) awareness of the general problem situation;

2) its analysis, formulation of a specific problem;

3) solving the problem (putting forward, substantiating hypotheses, consistently testing them);

4) checking the correctness of the problem solution.

This process unfolds by analogy with the three phases of the mental act that arises in a problem situation and

includes awareness of the problem, its solution and the final conclusion. “Thinking,” notes A.V. Brushlinsky, “has its origins in a problem situation, which means that in the course of his activities a person begins to experience some incomprehensible difficulties that impede successful advancement... Thus, the problem situation that has arisen turns into a conscious one.” a human task."

Therefore, problem-based learning is based on the analytical-synthetic activity of students, realized in reasoning and reflection. This is a heuristic, research type of learning with great developmental potential.

Distinctive characteristics of problem-based learning are shown in Table 10.

Table 10 Characteristics of informative and problem-based learning (according to V. Okon)

Informative learning

Problem-based learning

1. The material is given ready-made, the teacher pays attention primarily to the program 2. In the oral presentation of material or through a textbook, gaps, obstacles and difficulties arise due to the student’s temporary exclusion from the didactic process 3. The pace of information transfer is aimed at stronger, average or weaker students 4. Monitoring school achievements is only partially related to the learning process; it is not an organic part of it 5. There is no possibility of ensuring 100% results for all students; the greatest difficulty is the application of information in practice

1. Students receive new information while solving theoretical and practical problems 2. In the course of solving a problem, the student overcomes all difficulties, his activity and independence reach a high level here 3. The pace at which information is conveyed varies by student or group of students. 4. Increased student activity contributes to the development of positive motives and reduces the need for formal verification of results 5. Teaching results are relatively high and stable. Students more easily apply acquired knowledge to new situations and at the same time develop their skills and creativity^

The basic concepts of problem-based learning include: “problem situation”, “problem task”, “problem”, “problematicity” (“levels of problem-ness”, “principles of problem-solving” and DR-)> “problematization”.

Condition realizing the learning goal is problematic, inherent in any “viable” object and subject, which can exist in a hidden and expressed form, i.e. be internal and external.

In a way creating problems is problematic situation fixing the moment of appropriation by the subject of an object containing problematic nature.

Means creating a problematic situation may arise problematic task formalized in text data.

Mechanism revealing the problem is problem-tization object and subject, i.e. the process of revealing internal and external contradictions inherent in the object, problems.

Unit process is problem - hidden or obvious contradiction inherent in things, phenomena of the material and ideal world.

Problematic - The main thing condition development of the object (world) and subject (person) - can be considered as a dialectical category, side by side with others, or as the main feature of these categories in development, or as the main principle of their action, activity, or as the need to act.

Problem situation- way revealing an objectively existing problem, expressed explicitly or implicitly, which manifests itself as a mental state of intellectual difficulty in the interaction of subject and object.

Problem task- means creating a problem situation - has a shell, materialized in its formulation (oral or written), focused on the needs and capabilities of the subject.

Problematization is a mechanism underlying the discovery of the problematic nature of an object by the subject, materialized in a given problematic task.

Problem- contradiction - a unit of content and process of movement in material and ideal space, generating the process of development of the world and man and generated by a developed person. This process is continuous.

According to V. Okon, “the essence of the learning process by solving problems comes down in each case to the creation of a situation that forces the student to independently look for a solution.” According to V. Okon, the role of the teacher is to make the student feel a difficulty of a practical or theoretical nature, understand the problem posed by the teacher, or formulate it himself, want to solve the problem, and solve it.

What does the problem solving process depend on? According to V. Okon, it depends on the nature of the problem and the complexity of its solution. “The nature of the problem is determined by the degree of its complexity. In addition to Simple problems, there are also those that, before starting to solve

need to be divided into particular ones, and only the solution of the latter makes it possible to solve the main problem. The difficulty of solving the problem is twofold. One is that in order to make a decision it is necessary to update some part of previous experience, precisely that without which the solution is impossible. The other is the need to simultaneously find new elements (links) unknown to the student that allow solving the problem.”

The didactic foundations of problem-based learning are determined by the content and essence of its concepts. According to M.I. Makhmutov, the main concepts of the theory of problem-based learning should be “educational problem”, “problem situation”, “hypothesis”, as well as “problem-based teaching”, “problem-based teaching”, “problematic content”, “mental search", "problematic question", "problematic presentation".

Educational problem- a subjective phenomenon and exists in the student’s mind in an ideal form, in thought. Task - an objective phenomenon, for the student it exists from the very beginning in material form (in sounds or signs), and the task turns into a subjective phenomenon only after its perception and awareness. It is also important that the form of implementation of the principle of problem-ness in teaching is an educational problem.

M.I. Makhmutov offers a didactic classification of educational problems, which is based on the following variables: 1) area and place of occurrence; 2) role in the learning process; 3) social and political significance; 4) ways to organize the decision process. Psychological classification of educational problems is based on such indicators as: 1) the nature of the unknown and caused difficulty; 2) method of solution; 3) the nature of the content and relationship between the known and the unknown in the problem.

Defining a problem situation, M. I. Makhmutov notes that it is the initial moment of thinking, causing the student’s cognitive need and creating internal conditions for the active assimilation of new knowledge and methods of activity. In this case, we can distinguish two types of problem situations that arise when posing both theoretical and practical problems.

The classification of ways to create problem situations is based on the nature of the contradiction that arises in the learning process: “1. Students encounter phenomena and facts that require theoretical explanation. 2. The use of educational and life situations that arise when students perform practical tasks. 3. Setting educational problem tasks to explain the phenomenon or search for ways of its practical application. 4. Encouraging students to analyze facts and phenomena

reality, confronting them with contradictions between everyday ideas and scientific concepts about these facts. 5. Proposing hypotheses, formulating conclusions and testing them experimentally. 6. Encouraging students to compare, contrast and contrast facts, phenomena, rules, actions, as a result of which cognitive difficulties arise. 7. Encouraging students to preliminary generalize new facts. 8. Familiarizing students with facts that seem to be of an inexplicable nature and have led to the formulation of a scientific problem in the history of science. 9. Organization of interdisciplinary connections."

M.I. Makhmutov distinguishes three types of problem-based learning according to the type of creative activity being implemented: 1) scientific creativity; 2) practical creativity; 3) artistic creativity. What underlies each type of learning and creativity? Scientific creativity is based on the formulation and solution of theoretical educational problems. Practical creativity is based on the formulation and solution of practical educational problems. Artistic creativity is “an artistic representation of reality based on creative imagination, including literary writing, drawing, writing a piece of music, playing, etc.” .

The main thing in problem-based learning is the creation problematic situation. Of course, not every question to which a student does not know the answer creates a genuine problem situation. Questions like: “What is the number of inhabitants in Moscow?”, “When was the Battle of Poltava?” or “Which city is the capital of Turkey?”, “What was Gogol’s name?” - are not problems from a psychological and didactic point of view, since the answer can be obtained from a reference book or encyclopedia without any participation in the thought process. A task that is not difficult for the student (for example, calculating the area of ​​a triangle if he knows how to do it) is not a problem either.

A learning task can trigger mental activity under certain conditions. Psychologists see the source of student activity, in particular, in the contradictions between their existing experience (knowledge, abilities, skills) and the problems that arise when solving cognitive educational problems. This contradiction causes active mental activity. For example, a student must solve one or another cognitive problem, however: a) its conditions do not suggest a way to solve it and b) the student’s past experience does not contain any ready-made solution scheme that could be applied in this case. The student is faced with the need to create a new solution scheme that is not available in his experience, a new system of methods of action.

A problematic situation arises in a person if he has a cognitive need and intellectual ability to solve a problem in the presence of difficulty, a contradiction between old and new, known and unknown, given and sought, conditions and requirements. Problem situations are differentiated by A. M. Matyushkin according to the following criteria: 1) the structure of actions that must be performed to solve the problem (for example, finding a method of action); 2) the level of development of these actions in the person solving the problem; 3) the intellectual capabilities of the student.

A. M. Matyushkin characterizes a problem situation as a special type of mental interaction between an object and a subject (student), characterized by such a mental state of the subject when solving problems that requires the discovery (discovery or assimilation) of new knowledge or methods of activity previously unknown to the subject. In other words, a problem situation is a situation in which a subject wants to solve problems that are difficult for him, but he lacks data and must look for it himself.

In the book “Problem situations in thinking and learning,” A. M. Matyushkin presents the following six rules for their creation.

1. To create a problem situation, students should be given a practical or theoretical task, the implementation of which will require the discovery of new knowledge and the mastery of new skills; here we can talk about a general pattern, a general method of activity, or about the general conditions for the implementation of activity.

2. The task must correspond to the intellectual capabilities of the student. The degree of difficulty of a problem task depends on the level of novelty of the teaching material and the degree of its generalization.

3. The problem task is given before the material being learned is explained.

4. Problem tasks can be: a) assimilation, b) formulation of a question, c) practical tasks. However, one should not confuse problematic tasks and problematic situations. A problematic task can lead to a problematic situation only if the above rules are taken into account.

5. The same problem situation can be caused by different types of tasks.

6. The teacher guides a very difficult problem situation by indicating to the student the reasons for not completing the practical task given to him or the impossibility of explaining certain facts to him.

Problem-based learning can be different level of difficulty for the student, depending on what and how many activities

he carries out his own efforts to formulate and solve the problem. V. A. Krutetsky proposed a scheme of levels of problematic teaching in comparison with traditional teaching based on the separation of teacher and student actions (Table 11).

Table 11 Scheme of levels of problematic learning (according to V.A. Krutetsky)

	Number of links retained by the teacher	Number of links transferred to the student	What does the teacher do 9	What does student 9 do?
0 (traditional)			Possesses a problem, formulates it, solves the problem	Remembers the solution to a problem
			Possesses a problem and formulates it	Solves the problem
			Poses a problem	Formulates a problem, solves a problem
			Provides general organization, control and skillful direction	Realizes problem, formulates it, solves the problem

The scheme of levels of problem-heuristic learning is based on how many and what links are transmitted by the teacher to the student. In the traditional form of teaching, the teacher himself formulates and solves the problem (derives a formula, proves a theorem, etc.). The student must understand and remember someone else’s thought, remember the formulation, the principle of the decision, the course of reasoning.

There are four levels of learning problems:

1. The teacher himself poses the problem (task) and solves it himself with active listening and discussion by the students.

2. The teacher poses a problem, the students independently or under his guidance find a solution. The teacher directs the student to independently search for solutions (partial search method). Here there is a break from the pattern, and space for reflection opens up.

3. The student poses a problem, the teacher helps to solve it. The student develops the ability to independently formulate a problem.

4. The student poses the problem himself and solves it himself. The teacher does not even point out the problem: the student must see it on his own, and having seen it, formulate and explore the possibilities and ways of solving it.

As a result, the ability to independently see a problem, independently analyze a problem situation, and independently find the correct answer is developed.

The third and fourth levels are the research method.

If the teacher feels that students are experiencing difficulties when performing a particular task, then he can introduce additional information, thereby reducing the degree of difficulty and transfer students to a lower level of problem-heuristic learning.

In problem-based learning, the teacher is like an experienced conductor organizing this exploratory search. In one case, the teacher can conduct this search himself with the help of students. Having posed the problem, he reveals the way to solve it, argues with the students, makes assumptions, discusses them with the students, refutes objections, proves the truth. In other words, the teacher demonstrates to students the path of scientific thinking, forces students to follow the dialectical movement of thought towards truth, and makes them, as it were, accomplices in scientific research.

In another case, the teacher’s role may be minimal - he provides schoolchildren with the opportunity to completely independently look for ways to solve problems. But even here the teacher does not take a passive position, but, if necessary, quietly guides the students’ thoughts in order to avoid fruitless attempts and unnecessary loss of time. That is why the teaching method associated with the independent search and discovery of certain truths by schoolchildren is called problem-heuristic, or research, method.

Thus, in the conditions of problem-based learning, the development of activity in the mental activity of students can be characterized as a transition from actions stimulated by the teacher’s tasks to independent posing of questions; from actions associated with the choice of already known paths and methods, to independent searches for solutions to problems and further - to developing the ability to independently see problems and explore them.

The research method cultivated in problem-based learning is an organization of educational work in which students become familiar with scientific methods of obtaining knowledge and, by mastering the elements of scientific methods available to them, master the ability to independently obtain new knowledge, plan a search and discover a new dependence or pattern.

In the learning process, it is important to gradually transfer students successively to a higher level of problem-heuristics.

ical training. Of course (and this is important to emphasize), the ability to see, formulate and solve a problem does not develop spontaneously, like the spontaneous development of initially laid down tendencies. This is the result of learning. The teacher teaches how to formulate and solve problems independently; independent thinking develops with the decisive and leading role of the teacher. It is wrong to assume, as D. Dewey did, that the innate and unspoiled state of childhood, characterized by a love of experimental research, is very close to scientific thinking.

Among the modern developments of forms of problem-based learning, the experience of its implementation in the methodology and practice of teaching foreign languages ​​deserves attention. One of the latest original “versions” of such a didactic structure is the development of E. V. Kovalevskaya. In her research on teaching speaking a foreign language, the task was to develop ways to create problem situations at the communicative level. During the experiment, it was found that problem situations for teaching speaking should be built on the basis of including an obstacle to achieving the goal and varying the number of unknown components (place, time, participants in communication), which determines the degree of complexity of the problem situation and the variability of solutions. For example: “You need to be at the institute on time, but you can’t leave because you’re waiting for an important phone call...” This situation is problematic because it contains an obstacle to achieving the goal, as well as unknown components (time and participants in communication).

Thus, during the experiment the feasibility of introducing step problem situations, which help stimulate speech through a series of sequential obstacles to achieving the goal. The development of students' creative activity was ensured by involving them in the process of posing and solving problems, individualizing learning based on the choice of problems in accordance with the cognitive and communicative needs and capabilities of each student.

E. V. Kovalevskaya developed “stepped” situations in which the goal of the simulated action is complicated not by one, but by a chain of obstacles arranged in a certain logical sequence. For example: “You need to be at college on time, but: 1. You can’t leave because you’re waiting for an important phone call... 2. You ask your neighbor to take you to work, but he refuses because... 3. You you're traveling by bus, but don't have time to get a ticket, the controller comes in... 4. The bus leaves, you stop a taxi, but a man appears who is late for the plane... 5. You stop the car, but on the way the driver

violates traffic rules... 6. You arrive at the institute, but you don’t have a wallet (money) to pay for the fare... 7. You manage to pay for the fare, but you are late for the lecture... etc.” . Based on step-by-step situations presented orally in a foreign language, the teacher maintains communication, offering more and more new problems to solve.

Next, E.V. Kovalevskaya considers one of the central issues of problem-based learning - the issue of “appropriation” of objective problem situations, provided that they correspond to the cognitive and communicative needs and capabilities of the students and if they are accepted by the teacher.

The assignment process can be optimized based on the development of students’ skills to resolve problem situations and the teachers’ skills to manage this process. The search skills of students and teachers were based on the stages of problem solving. Students’ skills to resolve problem situations include: 1) the ability to see problems and pose them independently; 2) the ability to create a solution hypothesis, evaluate it, moving to a new one if the original one is unproductive; 3) the ability to direct and change the course of a decision in accordance with one’s interests; 4) the ability to evaluate your decision and the decisions of your interlocutors. The skills of teachers to manage the process of resolving problem situations come down to the following: 1) the ability to foresee possible problems on the way to achieving a goal in a problem situation; 2) the ability to instantly reformulate a problem situation, making it easier or more difficult based on regulating the number of unknown components; 3) the ability to select problem situations in accordance with the train of thought of those solving the problem; 4) the ability to impartially evaluate student decision options, even if the points of view of students and the teacher do not coincide.

By analogy with the levels of problems for a student, E. V. Kovalevskaya builds levels of problems for a teacher: on first level, the teacher masters methodological knowledge in the process of reasoning presentation of the main provisions and concepts of problem-based learning in relation to a foreign language; on second level, the teacher uses problem situations from the textbook in his work; on third level independently thinks through possible problem situations during preparation for a lesson, and also creates them during the lesson; on fourth level becomes the author of a new textbook, methodology, scientific research. In the process of creativity, the teacher becomes the author of his own script (textbook), director of his own performance (lesson), and creator of a new theater (scientific direction). The above made it possible to show the multi-level nature of the idea of ​​problematicity, its development in space and time.

In conclusion, it is necessary to dwell on the place and role of problem-based learning in the system of a holistic educational process.

According to I.Ya. Lerner, problem-based learning should be carried out only when studying part of the educational material, which allows creative processing of information obtained in both problem-based and non-problem-based learning.

What are the functions of problem-based learning? There are three of them: 1) development of creative potential and formation of structures of creative activity; 2) creative assimilation of knowledge and methods of activity; 3) creative mastery of the methods of modern science.

At the same time, as I.Ya. Lerner notes, only a few students can see problem situations. In order for the majority of students to be able to see and solve problems, a system of problematic situations, problems and problematic tasks is necessary, included in the fabric of the educational content and the learning process. Indicators of a system of problematic tasks should include the following characteristics: 1) coverage of various features of creative activity; 2) the presence of different degrees of complexity. As for the content of the educational material on which the system of problems should be built, it is subject to the main substantive principle of the system of problematic tasks, based on the identification of “cross-cutting” or “aspect” problems in various fields of science.

According to M.I. Makhmutov, problem-based learning cannot replace all learning, but without the principle of problem-based learning, learning cannot be developmental. “The problem-based type of education,” the author writes, “does not solve all educational and educational problems, therefore it cannot replace the entire education system, which includes different types, methods and forms of organizing the educational process. But also the general system of education cannot be truly developmental without problem-based learning, the basis of which is a system of problem situations.”

Of course, the problem-based method cannot be turned into a universal teaching method. As V.A. Krutetsky noted, “...for some students who do not yet have the skills of independent thinking, it is somewhat difficult (although other students can be very successful in it: in our experiments, for example, the most capable “discovered” almost entire geometry course). And it requires more time than traditional informational presentation. But the latter circumstance should not be exaggerated. The loss of time in the first stages of introducing a problematic method is compensated later, when the student’s independent thinking develops sufficiently.”

The advantages of problem-based learning are obvious. First of all, these are great opportunities for developing attention, observation

vigor, activation of thinking, activation of cognitive activity of students; it develops independence, responsibility, criticality and self-criticism, initiative, innovative thinking, caution and determination, etc. In addition, which is very important, problem-based learning ensures the strength of the acquired knowledge, because it is acquired through independent activity.

Problem-based learning has a number of advantages over traditional learning, since: 1) it teaches you to think logically, scientifically, dialectically, creatively; 2) makes educational material more evidence-based, thereby facilitating the transformation of knowledge into beliefs; 3) as a rule, it evokes deep intellectual feelings more emotionally, including a feeling of joyful satisfaction, a sense of confidence in one’s capabilities and strengths, therefore it captivates schoolchildren and creates a serious interest among students in scientific knowledge; 4) it has been established that independently “discovered” truths and patterns are not so easily forgotten, and in case of forgetting, independently acquired knowledge can be restored more quickly.

Problem-based learning is associated with research and therefore involves a time-consuming solution to the problem. The student finds himself in a situation similar to that of a person solving a creative task or problem. He constantly thinks about it and does not leave this state until he solves it. It is due to this incompleteness that strong knowledge, skills and abilities are formed.

The disadvantages of problem-based learning include the fact that it always causes difficulty for the student in the educational process, so it takes much more time to comprehend it and find ways to solve it than with traditional learning. In addition, as with programmed learning, the development of problem-based learning technology requires great pedagogical skill and a lot of time from the teacher. Apparently, it is precisely these circumstances that do not allow the widespread use of problem-based learning. At the same time, problem-based learning meets the requirements of our time: teach by exploring, explore by teaching. This is the only way to form a creative personality, that is, to realize the main task of pedagogical work.

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1. What are the main trends, varieties and features of modern areas of education?

2. What is the essence of the problem of the relationship between training and development, as well as approaches to solving it?

3. Can training ensure the full development of personality, what is the essence of the provisions of L.S. Vygotsky’s concept?

4. What are the main provisions of the concept of developmental education by L.V. Zankov (lines and principles of development, distinctive features of developmental education)?

5. What is the peculiarity of constructing teaching methods in the primary grades according to L.V. Zankov (the structure of the lesson and textbooks, the logic of constructing the course of study)?

6. What are the features of the formation of educational activities according to the methodology of L. B. Elkonin-V. V. Davydov?

7. What are the scientific background and forms of programmed learning?

8. What is the essence of the algorithmization of learning and the theory of the phased formation of mental actions by P.Ya. Galperin?

9. What goals and provisions underlie N.F. Talyzina’s concept of programming the educational process?

10. What is special about the development of programmed aids and training programs?

11. What are the essence and didactic characteristics of the organization of problem-based learning?

12. What is the peculiarity and meaning of creating problem situations in teaching?

13. What are the characteristics of the levels of problem-based learning and its role in the educational process?