Female reproductive system– a closely connected complex of internal/external organs of the female body, primarily responsible for the reproductive function. This complex includes the genitals, as well as the mammary glands, which are connected with the former on a functional, rather than an anatomical level. A woman's reproductive system is immature after birth and develops before reaching maturity during puberty (puberty), gaining the ability to produce female gametes (eggs) and carry a fetus to full term.

Formation of a woman's reproductive system

Chromosomal characteristics determine the genetic sex of the fetus at the time of conception. Twenty-three pairs of chromosomes, which are inherited, form the basis of this concept. Since the mother's egg contains X chromosomes, and the father's sperm contains two different chromosomes - X or Y, it is the man who determines the sex of the fetus:

• The fetus will be female if it inherits the X chromosome from the father. In this situation, testosterone will not be synthesized, so the Wolffian canal (male urogenital structure) will begin to degrade, and the Müllerian duct (female urogenital structure) will transform into female genitalia. In the third month of the embryo’s life, the formation of the vagina and uterine organ begins, and approximately in the fifth or sixth month the vaginal lumen is formed. The clitoris is a remnant of the Wolffian canal, and the hymen is a remnant of the Müllerian duct.
• If the fetus inherits a Y chromosome from its father, it will be male. The presence of testosterone will stimulate the growth of the Wolffian canal, which will lead to the development of male genitalia. The Müllerian course, in turn, will degrade.

Reproductive organs are formed in the womb and their subsequent development occurs as the child grows. The process of puberty begins in adolescence, the key signs of which are:

• enlargement of the pelvic area;
• the beginning of menstruation;
• hair growth in the pubic area and armpits;
• maturation of female gametes.
• Puberty results in sexual maturity, that is, the ability to bear and give birth to children. The childbearing period is usually limited in time. After its completion, the menstrual cycle stops and menopause develops, lasting until death.

Female reproductive system: functions

The female reproductive system is designed to perform a number of functions. Firstly, it produces eggs and ensures their transportation to the site of fertilization by sperm. Conception, i.e. Fertilization of the female gamete by the male usually occurs inside the fallopian tubes. Secondly, the reproductive system ensures the implantation of the embryo into the uterine wall, this occurs in the early stages of pregnancy. Thirdly, it is intended for menstruation (in the absence of fertilization/implantation of the embryo). Finally, the female reproductive system produces sex hormones that are required to support the reproductive cycle.

Internal organs of the female reproductive system

They are located in the lower part of the pelvic cavity, that is, inside the small pelvis.

Vagina

The vagina is a muscular-elastic canal that connects the cervix (aka the cervix - the lower element of the uterine organ) and the external part of the body. In virgins, the vagina is closed by the hymen. In relation to the uterus, it forms an angle that is open in front.

Uterus

The smooth muscle organ of the woman’s reproductive system, where the embryo develops and the fetus is born. It is divided into 3 parts - the bottom, the body (corpus) and the cervix. The body is able to expand significantly to accommodate the growing fetus. The cervix allows sperm to pass in and allows menstrual blood to pass out.

Ovaries

Small paired glands, oval-shaped and located on each side of the uterus. The basic tasks of the ovaries are generative and endocrine: generative - the ovaries serve as the site of development/maturation of female gametes; endocrine – these organs produce sex hormones, namely estrogens, weak progestins and androgens.

Fallopian tubes

Narrow tubes that are attached to the top of the uterus. They act as a tunnel for eggs moving from the ovaries into the uterine organ. This is where conception usually occurs. Then, thanks to the movements of the ciliated epithelial tissue of the tubes, the fertilized (or unfertilized) female gamete is sent to the uterus.

Hymen

The hymen (hymen) is a thin fold of mucous membrane that has one or several small holes. It covers the outside of the genital slit. The holes allow secretions to escape. During the first coitus, the hymen, as a rule, is completely or partially destroyed (so-called defloration), and after childbirth it is almost not preserved.

External organs of the female reproductive system

Have two key tasks:

• allow sperm to enter the body;
• protect the internal genital organs from all kinds of infections.

Labia

Two pairs of folds of mucous membrane and skin that surround the genital slit on the sides and go from the pubis towards the anus. The labia majora and minora are divided into:

• Large (labia majora) - larger and fleshier, comparable to the scrotum in males. They contain the exocrine glands (sweat and sebaceous), cover and protect other external reproductive organs.
• Small (labia minora) - can be small in size or reach 50 mm in width. They are located inside the labia majora and directly surround the genital opening and urethral opening.

Bartholin's glands

Large paired glands located near the vaginal opening and secrete mucus that promotes normal coitus.

Clitoris

Two labia minora converge in the clitoris, a small anatomical formation with sensitive zones, which acts as an analogue, or more precisely, a homologue, of the penis in men. The clitoris is covered with a fold of skin called the prepuce, which is similar to the foreskin of the male organ. Similar to the penis, the clitoris is quite sensitive to sexual stimulation and is capable of achieving an erect state.

Women's reproductive rights

The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) was created in the mid-1950s. to promote the well-being of women, especially increasing the level of gynecological care and care. Reproductive rights are the basic rights of women in the documents of this international public organization. They are associated with fertility and the health of the reproductive system. Women have the right to control issues related to their sexuality, including their sexual and reproductive health. Violations of these rights include: forced pregnancy, forced sterilization, forced

Basic concepts and key terms: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM. Female reproductive system. Male reproductive system. Remember! What is reproduction?

Interesting

The symbols of Mars and Venus are symbols of ancient astrology. The female sign of Venus is depicted as a circle with a cross pointing downwards. It is called the “mirror of Venus” and symbolizes femininity, beauty and love. The male sign of Mars is depicted as a circle with an arrow pointing up and to the right. This symbol is called the “shield and spear of Mars.” In biology, these symbols were introduced by Carl Linnaeus to indicate the sex of plants.

What are the characteristics of human reproduction?

Reproduction is a physiological function that ensures the self-reproduction of the species. Humans are characterized by sexual reproduction, which involves sex cells, or gametes, having half the set of chromosomes. These cells are formed by two types of gonads - ovaries and testes. They are located in the body of individuals of different sexes. Humans are dioecious with the phenomenon of sexual dimorphism.

Human reproduction is ensured by the REPRODUCTIVE (SEXUAL) SYSTEM (from Latin reproductio - reproduction) - a set of genital organs that ensure sexual reproduction. There are male and female reproductive systems.

All hereditary information about the human body is encoded in DNA contained in chromosomes. A person has 46 of them. Before reproduction, gametes are formed from the cells of the gonads, in which there are 23 chromosomes and half the set of hereditary information. Soon after fertilization and fusion of the germ cell nuclei, the full set of hereditary information is restored. This is why children have characteristics of both parents.

Human reproduction becomes possible with the onset of sexual and physical maturity. But man is a biosocial species, so the mental readiness of future parents, the social conditions of their life and social norms of behavior play a big role in its reproduction.

A person may experience early puberty, which is associated with acceleration (acceleration of the rate of individual development and growth of children and adolescents compared to previous generations).

Table 50. FEATURES OF HUMAN REPRODUCE

organizations	Peculiarity
Molecular	Hereditary information recorded in DNA is transmitted to the next generation by carriers of heredity - chromosomes
Cellular	Male gametes - spermatozoons and female gametes - eggs contain 23 chromosomes
Fabric	All 4 types of tissues are involved in the formation of genital organs
Organ	The genital organs, unlike the organs of other systems, differ in men and women
System	The female and male reproductive systems have external and internal genitalia
Organismal	Male and female bodies differ in primary (structure of the genital organs) and secondary (features of structure, function and behavior that distinguish males from females) sexual characteristics

So, human reproduction is ensured by the reproductive system and differs between male and female organisms.

What is the importance of the female reproductive system?

A woman’s reproductive system is formed by the external genitalia (labia and clitoris), internal genital organs (ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina), and mammary glands (paired organs that produce secretions for feeding babies).

The main reproductive organs in women are two ovaries. These are paired oval-shaped organs located at the funnel-shaped ends of the fallopian tubes. They contain immature eggs that are formed in a woman’s body even before she is born. The maturation of eggs in a woman’s ovaries occurs from the end of puberty until the end of the reproductive period. Every woman ovulates every month - one of the eggs reaches full maturity and is released from the ovary. After release, the egg enters the fallopian tube, through which it moves to the uterus. If the egg is not fertilized, menstruation occurs. In addition to eggs, the ovaries contain secretory cells that secrete sex hormones (estradiol, progesterone).

Fallopian tubes are paired organs that connect the ovaries to the

uterine cavity. The total length of the fallopian tube is about 12 cm. By capturing a mature egg from the ovary, the fallopian tubes provide its nutrition and movement to the uterus. Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tubes with the formation of a zygote.

The uterus is a hollow, unpaired muscular organ in which, during pregnancy, the embryo and fetus develop from the zygote. It distinguishes between the body of the uterus, to which the fallopian tubes approach, and the cervix, which is the narrow end of this organ. The uterus passes into the vagina, through which sperm enter the female body.

So, the female reproductive system is a set of organs that ensure the formation of eggs, the secretion of female sex hormones, fertilization and intrauterine development.

What is the structure and functions of the male reproductive system?

The male reproductive system is formed by the external genital organs (scrotum and penis), internal genital organs (testicles, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, ejaculatory duct), and prostate gland. Unlike the female, the male reproductive system is located almost entirely externally. This structure is due to the fact that sperm maturation requires a temperature below 36.6 °C.

The main genital organs of men are two testicles. These are paired organs located in the skin sac - the scrotum. The testicles consist of convoluted seminiferous tubules in which spermatozoons are formed. In addition, the male sex hormones androgens, in particular testosterone, are synthesized in the testicular cells. The spermatozoons then enter the epididymis, where they reach maturity and are stored until they are excreted. From each of the epididymis, the vas deferens begins, which connects with the duct of the seminal vesicles. These paired organs secrete fluid to provide nutrients to sperm. The ducts of the epididymis and the ducts of the seminal vesicles merge into the common ejaculatory duct, which opens into the canal of the penis. Below the bladder and around the urethra is the prostate gland. It forms a secretion that protects male gametes and maintains their mobility.

So, the male reproductive system is a set of organs that ensure the formation of spermatozoons, the secretion of male sex hormones and insemination.

ACTIVITY

Learning to know

Independent work with the table

Apply the comparison method and determine the similarities and differences between the female and male reproductive systems.

	Female reproductive system	Male reproductive system
External organs
Internal organs
Location of major organs
The name of the cells that form
Hormones that form

Biology + Chemistry

The adult human body contains about 2-3 g of zinc, almost 90% of its total amount is concentrated in muscles and bones. A significant amount of this microelement is found in the prostate gland and seminal fluid, which indicates its importance for human reproductive health. This microelement also has a significant impact on the state of the immune system. Zinc is an activator of T-lymphocyte activity, the synthesis of cytokines by lymphocytes, which regulate the immune response and act as a growth factor for the immune system. How does zinc enter the human body? What foods contain zinc?

Biology + Mythology

In ancient Roman mythology, Cupid is a winged boy, the little god of lovers, the satellite of Venus. He is armed with a golden bow and arrows, with which he hits people's hearts, causing people to feel love. Hence the expression “to be wounded by Cupid’s arrow” - to fall in love. Try to find a physiological connection between sex hormones, heart function and love. What role does the endocrine system play in regulating human reproduction processes?

RESULT

	Questions for self-control
	1. What is the reproductive system? 2. What set of chromosomes do gametes contain? 3. What is the female reproductive system? 4. Name the female genital organs that form eggs. 5. What is the male reproductive system? 6. Name the male genital organs that form spermatozoons.
	7. Name the features of human reproduction. 8. What is the importance of the female reproductive system? 9. Describe the structure and functions of the male reproductive system.
	What role does the endocrine system play in regulating human reproduction processes?

This is textbook material

Human reproduction

Human reproduction (human reproduction), a physiological function necessary for the preservation of humans as a biological species. The process of reproduction in humans begins with conception (fertilization), i.e. from the moment of penetration of the male reproductive cell (sperm) into the female reproductive cell (egg, or ovum). The fusion of the nuclei of these two cells is the beginning of the formation of a new individual. A human embryo develops in a woman's uterus during pregnancy, which lasts 265–270 days. At the end of this period, the uterus begins to spontaneously contract rhythmically, contractions become stronger and more frequent; the amniotic sac (fetal sac) ruptures and, finally, the mature fetus is “expelled” through the vagina - a child is born. Soon the placenta (afterbirth) also leaves. The entire process, starting with uterine contractions and ending with the expulsion of the fetus and placenta, is called childbirth.

Does a woman have the right to use her body? With legal recognition of sexual rights, we can finally say yes. It reinforces the separation of sex and reproduction by making it definitively clear that they, women, are sexual beings, not just reproductive ones. In other words, legal recognition of women's sexual rights carries with it an emancipatory, libertarian character to be perceived as positive and desirable for women's sexual pleasure. Making a "satisfying and safe sex life" a right for everyone, but especially for women, represents a huge gain in their quality of life as they can be guilty of seeking and feeling sexual pleasure with a chosen partner to exercise Citizenship in both the public sphere and and in a private, intimate, internal context.

In more than 98% of cases, during conception, only one egg is fertilized, which causes the development of one fetus. Twins (twins) develop in 1.5% of cases. About one in 7,500 pregnancies result in triplets.

Only biologically mature individuals have the ability to reproduce. During puberty (puberty), a physiological restructuring of the body occurs, manifested in physical and chemical changes that mark the onset of biological maturity. During this period, the girl’s fat deposits around the pelvis and hips increase, the mammary glands grow and become round, and hair growth develops on the external genitalia and armpits. Soon after the appearance of these so-called secondary sexual characteristics, the menstrual cycle is established.

However, it should be emphasized, as stated above, that mere confirmation of rights is not a guarantee of its effectiveness. There is still a need to think about how to implement human rights to ensure their enjoyment by all and their recognition and socio-cultural acceptance. In any case, the current picture points to the importance of broadening the boundaries of the human rights debate to include new rights, such as sexual rights, that at least formally ensure the human dignity of vulnerable groups such as women and homosexuals.

Boys' physique changes noticeably during puberty; the amount of fat on the stomach and hips decreases, the shoulders become wider, the timbre of the voice decreases, and hair appears on the body and face. Spermatogenesis (production of sperm) in boys begins somewhat later than menstruation in girls.

It's not just sex that has been freed from reproduction. It is known that positive rights cannot have any social effectiveness and do not generate on the part of the state the distribution of resources for its effectiveness. However, this work will accept the premise that positivization is a significant step in the process of realization and effectiveness of rights.

This is because, particularly in the case of sexual rights, as will be seen throughout this paper, positioning in some sense detracts from the moral considerations that constitute barriers to the recognition of homosexuals and transsexuals, for example, as subjects of rights. Sexual rights and reproductive rights from a human rights perspective: a synthesis for policymakers, legislators, and lawyers.

The fallopian tubes, like the ovaries, are paired formations. Each of them extends from the ovary and connects to the uterus (from two different sides). The length of the pipes is approximately 8 cm; they bend slightly. The lumen of the tubes passes into the uterine cavity. The walls of the tubes contain inner and outer layers of smooth muscle fibers, which constantly contract rhythmically, which ensures the wave-like movements of the tubes. The inside walls of the tubes are lined with a thin membrane containing ciliated (ciliated) cells. Once the egg enters the tube, these cells, along with muscle contractions of the walls, ensure its movement into the uterine cavity.

Sexual rights: a new concept in international political practice. Sexuality is superior: rights, identities and power. Sexuality, gender and sexual and reproductive rights. Constructing sexual difference in medicine. It is against this moral vision that the gay and lesbian movement naturally fights, since it is a central issue in the configuration of their citizenship.

Thus, Malthus decreed the disintegration of populations unless they voluntarily submitted to fertility reduction. Reproductive rights: chaos and government action. Reproductive rights and women's condition. Note, as Friedman and Isaacs note, the contrast of this statement with the testimony of Tehran and Bucharest, which had nothing to do with the woman's integrity and control over her body.

The uterus is a hollow muscular organ, 2.55located in the pelvic abdominal cavity. Its dimensions are approximately 8 cm. Pipes enter into it from above, and from below its cavity communicates with the vagina. The main part of the uterus is called the body. The non-pregnant uterus has only a slit-like cavity. The lower part of the uterus, the cervix, is about 2.5 cm long, protruding into the vagina, into which a cavity called the cervical canal opens. When a fertilized egg enters the uterus, it is immersed in its wall, where it develops throughout pregnancy.

Integrating a gender perspective into Brazilian legal doctrine: challenges and prospects. United Nations conferences influencing legislative changes and judicial decisions. Protection of reproductive rights in international and domestic law.

Progressive Catholic views on reproductive health and rights: The political challenge to Orthodoxy. From basic needs to basic rights. According to the report of the International Conference on Population and Development. Sexuality and its discontents: meaning, myths and modern sexualities.

The vagina is a hollow cylindrical formation 7–9 cm long. It is connected to the cervix along its circumference and extends to the external genitalia. Its main functions are the outflow of menstrual blood, the reception of the male sexual organ and male seed during copulation, and the provision of passage for the newborn fetus. In virgins, the external opening to the vagina is partially covered by a crescent-shaped fold of tissue, the hymen. This fold usually leaves enough space for the flow of menstrual blood; After the first copulation, the vaginal opening widens.

International human rights law and practice: implications for women. The right to recognition for gays and lesbians. Text and Materials, 2nd edition. Women's demands for human rights. There were also rights for lesbians and gays. Women's health and human rights.

Reality Recommendation: Women and International Law. Conclusions of the “Safe Motherhood” conference. Fundamental rights and private relations. It contains both freedoms and rights. The term stigma, according to Goffman, is used in relation to a deeply declining attribute. Stigma: Notes on the manipulation of degraded identity.

Mammary gland. Full-fledged (mature) milk in women usually appears approximately 4–5 days after birth. When a baby suckles at the breast, there is an additional powerful reflex stimulus to the glands producing milk (lactation).

The menstrual cycle is established soon after the onset of puberty under the influence of hormones produced by the endocrine glands. In the early stages of puberty, pituitary hormones initiate the activity of the ovaries, triggering a complex of processes that occur in the female body from puberty to menopause, i.e. for approximately 35 years. The pituitary gland cyclically secretes three hormones that are involved in the process of reproduction. The first, follicle-stimulating hormone, determines the development and maturation of the follicle; the second - luteinizing hormone - stimulates the synthesis of sex hormones in the follicles and initiates ovulation; the third - prolactin - prepares the mammary glands for lactation.

Reproduction in the human race is gendered, that is, it depends on the formation of an egg as a result of fertilization, that is, on the fusion of the female reproductive cell, the egg, with the male reproductive cell, the sperm. The main characteristic of sexual reproduction is the birth of offspring that are genetically different from each other and different from their parents. Only true twins are an exception and are genetically similar because they involve the early division of the embryo into two identical parts.

Functioning of the genital tract

Unlike humans, whose sperm production is continuous, women's reproductive system has cyclical activity. Every 28 days, the average length of the menstrual cycle, a female reproductive cell is emitted by the ovary. During the cycle, under the influence of female sex hormones, the uterus is ready to accept the embryo, especially through the thickening of its inner wall, in which many blood vessels develop. In the absence of fertilization, these vessels are eliminated, resulting in menstrual hemorrhage.

Under the influence of the first two hormones, the follicle grows, its cells divide, and a large fluid-filled cavity is formed in which the oocyte is located. The growth and activity of follicular cells is accompanied by the secretion of estrogens, or female sex hormones. These hormones can be found both in follicular fluid and in the blood. The term estrogen comes from the Greek oistros (“fury”) and is used to refer to a group of compounds that can cause estrus (“estrus”) in animals. Estrogens are present not only in the human body, but also in other mammals.

The female reproductive cell is commonly called an egg, but the precise scientific term is oocyte. The difference between an oocyte and an egg is due to the difference in maturation. When it is released by the ovary, the oocyte has not completed its maturation and cannot yet be fertilized. It is then collected at the terminal part of the reproductive tract, called the pavilion, which opens near the ovary. It is then transported inside the trunk, a hollow canal connecting the pavilion to the uterus, continuing its maturation. The maturation of an oocyte can only be completed if it is fertilized.

Luteinizing hormone stimulates the follicle to rupture and release the egg. After this, the follicle cells undergo significant changes, and a new structure develops from them - the corpus luteum. Under the influence of luteinizing hormone, it, in turn, produces the hormone progesterone. Progesterone inhibits the secretory activity of the pituitary gland and changes the state of the mucous membrane (endometrium) of the uterus, preparing it to receive a fertilized egg, which must penetrate (implantate) into the wall of the uterus for subsequent development. As a result, the wall of the uterus thickens significantly, its mucous membrane, containing a lot of glycogen and rich in blood vessels, creates favorable conditions for the development of the embryo. The coordinated action of estrogen and progesterone ensures the formation of the environment necessary for the survival of the embryo and the maintenance of pregnancy.

The extended part of the body, called the ampulla, is where fertilization occurs if sperm are present. In the human species, fertilization is internal, meaning it occurs in the female reproductive tract, and therefore requires mating if medicinal-nutritive methods are not considered During coitus, ejaculation is released into the vagina.

About 3 milliliters of semen, a mixture of sperm and the secretion of accessory glands. Semen contains an average of 100 million sperm per milliliter. As a result of ejaculation, sperm that move in the cells ascend the female reproductive tract: they first pass through the cervix, which separates the vaginal cavity, and then reach the tubes. Of the 300 million sperm, only a few hundred make it into the bulb, the enlarged part of the tube where fertilization can occur if an oocyte is present.

The pituitary gland stimulates ovarian activity approximately every four weeks (ovulatory cycle). If fertilization does not occur, most of the mucous membrane, along with the blood, is rejected and enters the vagina through the cervix. Such cyclically repeating bleeding is called menstruation. For most women, bleeding occurs approximately every 27–30 days and lasts 3–5 days. The entire cycle that ends with the shedding of the uterine lining is called the menstrual cycle. It is regularly repeated throughout the reproductive period of a woman’s life. The first periods after puberty may be irregular, and in many cases they are not preceded by ovulation. Menstrual cycles without ovulation, often found in young girls, are called anovulatory.

Even if only one sperm penetrates the oocyte, the presence of several hundred of them is necessary for fertilization because their secretions are needed to weaken the oocyte membranes. Once one of them penetrates, no one else can do so, because an impenetrable membrane immediately forms.

Since the life of a sperm such as an oocyte is limited to approximately 48 hours, the encounter between the oocyte and the sperm is only possible during the short fertile period of a few days during ovulation. Egg development in the human species is viviparous, as in other mammals. Gestation, that is, all development from egg to newborn, lasts on average 38 weeks and occurs in the mother's body in the uterus.

Menstruation is not at all the release of “spoiled” blood. In fact, the discharge contains very small amounts of blood mixed with mucus and tissue from the lining of the uterus. The amount of blood lost during menstruation varies from woman to woman, but on average does not exceed 5–8 tablespoons. Sometimes minor bleeding occurs in the middle of the cycle, which is often accompanied by mild abdominal pain, characteristic of ovulation. Such pains are called mittelschmerz (German: “middle pains”). Pain experienced during menstruation is called dysmenorrhea. Typically, dysmenorrhea occurs at the very beginning of menstruation and lasts 1–2 days.

Fertilization gives birth to an egg, which immediately begins to divide into two parts, then four, then eight cells, etc. These cells are called stem cells because they are capable of giving rise to all tissues of the body. The embryo is then implanted into the wall of the uterus, which is thickened and rich in blood vessels at this stage of the cycle, resulting in the prevention of cyclic destruction of the inner wall of the uterus and therefore the emergence of the rule.

From ovulation to implantation, the first week of embryonic development. After the oocyte is released from the ovary, fertilization produces an egg that immediately begins to divide. The embryo migrates into the proboscis and reaches the uterine cavity. It implants into the inner wall of the uterus approximately on the seventh day after fertilization.

Pregnancy. In most cases, the release of the egg from the follicle occurs approximately in the middle of the menstrual cycle, i.e. 10–15 days after the first day of the previous menstruation. Within 4 days, the egg moves through the fallopian tube. Conception, i.e. Fertilization of an egg by a sperm occurs in the upper part of the tube. This is where the development of the fertilized egg begins. Then it gradually descends through the tube into the uterine cavity, where it remains free for 3-4 days, and then penetrates the wall of the uterus, and from it the embryo and structures such as the placenta, umbilical cord, etc. develop.

Since the human egg contains very few reserves, the embryo must always receive nutrients. A temporary organ, the placenta, connected to the embryo by the umbilical cord, provides not only this function, but also respiration and excretion. In the placenta, oxygen and nutrients circulate the mother's blood into the blood vessels in the umbilical cord, while carbon dioxide and other waste products travel in the opposite direction.

During the first two months of pregnancy, major organs are created inside the embryo. This is why the consequences for a newborn infant, whether contaminated by the mother or due to the consumption of toxic substances, are much more serious during the first two months of pregnancy.

Pregnancy is accompanied by many physical and physiological changes in the body. Menstruation stops, the size and weight of the uterus sharply increase, and the mammary glands swell, preparing for lactation. During pregnancy, the volume of circulating blood exceeds the original by 50%, which significantly increases the work of the heart. In general, the pregnancy period is a heavy physical activity.

At the end of this period, all organs are formed, and then the embryo takes the name of the fetus. For the latter, the rest of pregnancy is essentially a phase of growth and maturation, especially of the nervous system. Nutrition and respiration of the embryo and fetus are provided by the placenta until birth. During childbirth, the newborn's digestive system and lungs become functional. From this moment on, his breathing becomes airy and he is able to suckle his mother and digest his milk. The umbilical cord is then cut and the placenta is expelled shortly after birth by contractions of the uterus.

Pregnancy ends with the expulsion of the fetus through the vagina. After childbirth, after about 6 weeks, the size of the uterus returns to its original size.

Menopause. The term "menopause" is made up of the Greek words meno ("monthly") and pausis ("cessation"). Thus, menopause means the cessation of menstruation. The entire period of decline of sexual functions, including menopause, is called menopause.

Menstruation also stops after surgical removal of both ovaries, performed for certain diseases. Exposure of the ovaries to ionizing radiation can also lead to cessation of their activity and menopause.

About 90% of women stop menstruating between the ages of 45 and 50. This can happen abruptly or gradually over many months, when menstruation becomes irregular, the intervals between them increase, the bleeding periods themselves gradually shorten and the amount of blood lost decreases. Sometimes menopause occurs in women under 40 years of age. Equally rare are women with regular menstruation at 55 years of age. Any bleeding from the vagina that occurs after menopause requires immediate medical attention.

Symptoms of menopause. During the period of cessation of menstruation or immediately before it, many women develop a complex set of symptoms that together constitute the so-called. menopausal syndrome. It consists of various combinations of the following symptoms: “hot flashes” (sudden redness or a feeling of heat in the neck and head), headaches, dizziness, irritability, mental instability and joint pain. Most women only complain about hot flashes, which can occur several times a day and are usually more severe at night. Approximately 15% of women do not feel anything, noting only the cessation of menstruation, and remain in excellent health.

Many women have misconceptions about what to expect during menopause and menopause. They are worried about the possibility of loss of sexual attractiveness or sudden cessation of sexual activity. Some fear mental illness or general decline. These fears are based primarily on rumors rather than medical facts.

Male reproductive system

The reproductive function in men is reduced to the production of a sufficient number of sperm that have normal motility and are capable of fertilizing mature eggs. The male genital organs include the testes (testes) with their ducts, the penis, and an auxiliary organ, the prostate gland.

Testicles (testes, testicles) are oval-shaped paired glands; each of them weighs 10–14 g and is suspended in the scrotum on the spermatic cord. The testicle consists of a large number of seminiferous tubules, which, merging, form the epididymis - epididymis. This is an oblong body adjacent to the top of each testicle. The testicles secrete male sex hormones, androgens, and produce sperm containing male reproductive cells - sperm.

Spermatozoa are small, very motile cells, consisting of a head containing a nucleus, a neck, a body and a flagellum or tail. They develop from special cells in thin convoluted seminiferous tubules. Maturing spermatozoa (so-called spermatocytes) move from these tubules into larger ducts that flow into spiral tubes (efferent, or excretory, tubules). From these, spermatocytes enter the epididymis, where their transformation into sperm is completed. The epididymis contains a duct that opens into the vas deferens of the testicle, which, connecting with the seminal vesicle, forms the ejaculatory (ejaculatory) duct of the prostate gland. At the moment of orgasm, sperm, together with the fluid produced by the cells of the prostate gland, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and mucous glands, are released from the seminal vesicle into the ejaculatory duct and then into the urethra of the penis. Normally, the volume of ejaculate (semen) is 2.5–3 ml, and each milliliter contains more than 100 million sperm.

Fertilization. Once in the vagina, sperm move into the fallopian tubes in about 6 hours using the movements of the tail, as well as due to the contraction of the vaginal walls. The chaotic movement of millions of sperm in the tubes creates the possibility of their contact with the egg, and if one of them penetrates it, the nuclei of the two cells merge and fertilization is completed.

Infertility

Infertility, or the inability to reproduce, can be due to many reasons. Only in rare cases is it caused by the absence of eggs or sperm.

Female infertility. A woman’s ability to conceive is directly related to her age, health, stage of the menstrual cycle, as well as her psychological mood and lack of nervous tension. Physiological causes of infertility in women include lack of ovulation, unready endometrium of the uterus, genital tract infections, narrowing or obstruction of the fallopian tubes, and congenital abnormalities of the reproductive organs. Other pathological conditions can lead to infertility if left untreated, including various chronic diseases, nutritional disorders, anemia and endocrine disorders.

Diagnostic tests. Determining the cause of infertility requires a complete medical examination and diagnostic laboratory tests. The patency of the fallopian tubes is checked by blowing them. To assess the condition of the endometrium, a biopsy is performed (removal of a small piece of tissue) followed by microscopic examination. The function of the reproductive organs can be judged by analyzing the level of hormones in the blood.

Male infertility. If the semen sample contains more than 25% abnormal sperm, fertilization is rare. Normally, 3 hours after ejaculation, about 80% of sperm retain sufficient mobility, and after 24 hours only a few of them show sluggish movements. Approximately 10% of men suffer from infertility due to insufficient sperm. Such men usually exhibit one or more of the following defects: a small number of sperm, a large number of abnormal forms, decreased or complete absence of sperm motility, and small ejaculate volume. The cause of infertility (sterility) may be inflammation of the testicles caused by mumps (mumps). If the testicles have not yet descended into the scrotum at the onset of puberty, the cells that make sperm may be permanently damaged. The outflow of seminal fluid and the movement of sperm are hindered by obstruction of the seminal vesicles. Finally, fertility (the ability to reproduce) may be reduced as a result of infectious diseases or endocrine disorders.

Diagnostic tests. In semen samples, the total number of sperm, the number of normal forms and their motility, as well as the volume of the ejaculate are determined. A biopsy is performed to examine the testicular tissue and the condition of the tubular cells microscopically. The secretion of hormones can be judged by determining their concentration in the urine.

Psychological (functional) infertility. Fertility is also affected by emotional factors. It is believed that a state of anxiety may be accompanied by a spasm of the tubes, which prevents the passage of the egg and sperm. Overcoming feelings of tension and anxiety in women in many cases creates the conditions for successful conception.

Treatment and research. Much progress has been made in the treatment of infertility. Modern methods of hormonal therapy can stimulate spermatogenesis in men and ovulation in women. With the help of special instruments, it is possible to examine the pelvic organs for diagnostic purposes without surgical intervention, and new microsurgical methods make it possible to restore the patency of pipes and ducts.

In vitro fertilization (in vitro fertilization). An outstanding event in the fight against infertility was the birth in 1978 of the first child developed from an egg fertilized outside the mother’s body, i.e. extracorporeally. This test tube child was the daughter of Leslie and Gilbert Brown, born in Oldham (UK). Her birth completed years of research work by two British scientists, gynecologist P. Steptoe and physiologist R. Edwards. Due to pathology of the fallopian tubes, the woman could not become pregnant for 9 years. To get around this obstacle, eggs taken from her ovary were placed in a test tube, where they were fertilized by adding her husband's sperm, and then incubated under special conditions. When the fertilized eggs began to divide, one of them was transferred to the mother's uterus, where implantation occurred and the natural development of the embryo continued. The baby, born by caesarean section, was normal in all respects. After this, in vitro fertilization (literally “in glass”) became widespread. Currently, similar assistance to infertile couples is provided in many clinics in different countries and as a result, thousands of “test tube” children have already appeared.

Freezing of embryos. Recently, a modified method has been proposed that has raised a number of ethical and legal issues: freezing fertilized eggs for later use. This technique, developed mainly in Australia, allows a woman to avoid having to undergo repeated egg retrieval procedures if the first attempt at implantation fails. It also makes it possible to implant an embryo into the uterus at the appropriate time in a woman's menstrual cycle. Freezing the embryo (at the very initial stages of development) and then thawing it also allows for successful pregnancy and childbirth.

Egg transfer. In the first half of the 1980s, another promising method of combating infertility was developed, called egg transfer, or in vivo fertilization - literally “in a living” (organism). This method involves artificial insemination of a woman who has agreed to become a donor with the sperm of the future father. After a few days, the fertilized egg, which is a tiny embryo (embryo), is carefully washed out of the donor's uterus and placed in the uterus of the expectant mother, who carries the fetus and gives birth. In January 1984, the first child born after an egg transfer was born in the United States.

Egg transfer is a non-surgical procedure; it can be done in a doctor's office without anesthesia. This method can help women who cannot produce eggs or have genetic disorders. It can also be used for tubal obstruction if a woman does not want to undergo the repeated procedures often required for in vitro fertilization. However, a child born in this way does not inherit the genes of the mother who carried him.

Bibliography

Bayer K., Sheinberg L. Healthy lifestyle. M., 1997

To prepare this work, materials from the site http://bio.freehostia.com were used

These include the labia majora, labia minora and clitoris, which together make up the vulva. It is bordered by two folds of skin - the labia majora. They consist of adipose tissue, saturated with blood vessels, and are located in the anteroposterior direction. The skin of the labia majora is covered on the outside with hair, and on the inside with thin shiny skin, onto which numerous gland ducts emerge. The labia majora connect anteriorly and posteriorly, forming the anterior and posterior commissures (commissures). Inward from them are the labia minora, which are located parallel to the labia majora and form the vestibule of the vagina. On the outside they are covered with thin skin, and on the inside they are lined with mucous membrane. They are pink-red in color, unite at the back in front of the commissure of the labia majora, and at the front at the level of the clitoris. They are quite richly supplied with sensitive nerve endings and participate in achieving voluptuous feelings.

On the threshold of the vagina, the ducts of the Bartholin glands, located in the thickness of the labia majora, open. The secretion of the Bartholin's glands is intensely secreted at the time of sexual arousal and provides lubrication of the vagina to facilitate frictions (periodic forward movements of the penis in the vagina) during sexual intercourse.

In the thickness of the labia majora there are bulbs of the cavernous bodies of the clitoris, which increase during sexual arousal. At the same time, the clitoris itself increases in size, which is a unique, greatly reduced resemblance to the penis. It is located in front and above the entrance to the vagina, at the junction of the labia minora. The clitoris has a lot of nerve endings and during sex it is the dominant, and sometimes the only organ through which a woman experiences orgasm.

Just below the clitoris is the opening of the urethra, and even lower is the entrance to the vagina. In women who have not been sexually active, it is covered by the hymen, which is a thin fold of mucous membrane. The hymen can have a variety of shapes: in the form of a ring, a crescent, a fringe, etc. As a rule, during the first sexual intercourse it ruptures, which may be accompanied by moderate pain and slight bleeding. In some women, the hymen is very dense and blocks the penis from entering the vagina. In such cases, sexual intercourse becomes impossible and you have to resort to the help of a gynecologist who dissects it. In other cases, the hymen is so elastic and pliable that it does not break during the first sexual intercourse.

Sometimes during rough sexual intercourse, especially in combination with a large penis, rupture of the hymen can be accompanied by quite heavy bleeding, such that the help of a gynecologist is necessary.

It is extremely rare that the hymen has no hole at all. During puberty, when a girl gets her period, menstrual blood accumulates in the vagina. Gradually, the vagina becomes filled with blood and compresses the urethra, making urination impossible. In these cases, the help of a gynecologist is also necessary.

The area located between the posterior commissure of the labia majora and the anus is called the perineum. The perineum consists of muscles, fascia, blood vessels, and nerves. During childbirth, the perineum plays a very important role: due to its extensibility, on the one hand, and elasticity, on the other, it allows the fetal head to pass through, ensuring an increase in the diameter of the vagina. However, with a very large fetus or during a rapid labor, the perineum cannot withstand excessive stretching and may rupture. Experienced obstetricians know how to prevent this situation. If all methods for protecting the perineum are ineffective, then they resort to an incision of the perineum (episiotomy or perineotomy), since an incised wound heals better and faster than a lacerated one.

Internal female genital organs

These include the vagina, uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes. All these organs are located in the small pelvis - a bony “shell” formed by the internal surfaces of the ilium, ischium, pubic bones and sacrum. This is necessary to protect both the woman’s reproductive system and the fetus developing in the uterus.

The uterus is a muscular organ consisting of smooth muscles, resembling a pear in shape. The dimensions of the uterus are on average 7-8 cm in length and about 5 cm in width. Despite its small size, during pregnancy the uterus can increase 7 times. The inside of the uterus is hollow. The thickness of the walls, as a rule, is about 3 cm. The body of the uterus is its widest part, facing upward, and the narrower part, the cervix, is directed downward and slightly forward (normally), flowing into the vagina and dividing its posterior wall into posterior and anterior vaults. Anterior to the uterus is the bladder, and behind is the rectum.

There is an opening in the cervix (cervical canal) that connects the vaginal cavity with the uterine cavity.

The fallopian tubes, extending from the lateral surfaces of the uterine fundus on both sides, are a paired organ 10-12 cm long. Sections of the fallopian tube: uterine part, isthmus and ampulla of the fallopian tube. The end of the pipe is called a funnel, from the edges of which numerous processes of various shapes and lengths (fimbriae) extend. The outside of the tube is covered with a connective tissue membrane, underneath it is a muscular membrane; the inner layer is the mucous membrane, lined with ciliated epithelium.

The ovaries are a paired organ, the sex gland. Oval body: length up to 2.5 cm, width 1.5 cm, thickness about 1 cm. One of its poles is connected to the uterus by its own ligament, the second is facing the side wall of the pelvis. The free edge is open into the abdominal cavity, the opposite edge is attached to the broad ligament of the uterus. It contains the medulla and cortical layers. In the medulla, vessels and nerves are concentrated, in the cortex, follicles mature.

The vagina is an extensible muscular-fibrous tube about 10 cm long. The upper edge of the vagina covers the cervix, and the lower edge opens into the vestibule of the vagina. The cervix protrudes into the vagina, and a dome-shaped space is formed around the cervix - the anterior and posterior fornix. The vaginal wall consists of three layers: the outer layer is dense connective tissue, the middle layer is thin muscle fibers, and the inner layer is the mucous membrane. Some of the epithelial cells synthesize and store glycogen stores. Normally, the vagina is dominated by Doderlein bacilli, which process the glycogen of dying cells, forming lactic acid. This causes the vagina to maintain an acidic environment (pH = 4), which has a detrimental effect on other (non-acidophilic) bacteria. Additional protection against infection is provided by numerous neutrophils and leukocytes residing in the vaginal epithelium.

The mammary glands are composed of glandular tissue: each of them contains approximately 20 individual tubuloalveolar glands, each of which has its own outlet on the nipple. In front of the nipple, each duct has an extension (ampulla or sinus), which is surrounded by smooth muscle fibers. In the walls of the ducts there are contractile cells, which in response to sucking reflexively contract, expelling the milk contained in the ducts. The skin around the nipple is called the areola, it contains many glands such as mammary glands, as well as sebaceous glands that produce an oily fluid that lubricates and protects the nipple during sucking.

1.3.1. Anatomical and physiological

and histophysiological characteristics of the reproductive organs

female organs during the reproductive period

1.3.1.1. Ovaries

The ovaries of a sexually mature woman are located in the small pelvis (Fig. 1.6), somewhat asymmetrically on the posterior layer of the broad ligament. The position of the ovaries in the pelvic cavity at this age is relatively inactive. Their displacement into the abdominal cavity is observed only during the period of growth of the body, as well as during pregnancy; at the end of the postpartum period, the ovaries descend again into the pelvis. The size and body weight of the ovary in women over 20 years of age change slightly: size 4.0-4.5 x 2.0-2.5 cm (with a diameter of 1-2 cm), weight 6.0-7.5 g. The right ovary is slightly larger than the left. The consistency of the gonads is dense. Their surface is smooth until puberty, but becomes uneven during the reproductive period. The color is whitish, matte.

The ovaries do not have a peritoneal covering; the latter covers only the mesentery of the ovary (mesovary), which is the short part of the posterior layer of the broad ligament. The ovaries are attached to the mesentery by their lower edge. Each ovary has two ligaments: one of them (the infundibulopelvic ligament) runs from the upper pole of the ovary to the side wall of the pelvis, the other (the ligament proper) connects the ovary to the uterus, where the ligament ends behind and slightly below the fallopian tube. The ligaments contain blood and lymphatic vessels, as well as nerves. In the ovaries, the bulk of the vessels pass through the mesovarium. The place where they enter the gonads is called the ovarian hilum.

The blood supply to the gonads is carried out mainly by the ovarian artery and the ovarian branch of the uterine artery. Blood vessels in the ovaries have a large number of anastomoses in the cortex and medulla. The medulla is especially rich in blood vessels; it borders the mesovarium.

Blood vessels anastomose both within their own layer and between the cortical and medulla layers, which provides

Rice. 1.6. Internal genital organs of a woman in the reproductive

period: general view (a) and sectional view (b). Left ovary, left uterine

the tube, uterus and vagina are opened; the peritoneum is partially removed

the possibility of adequate local changes in blood circulation. Anastomosis of the lymphatic system of the ovaries, uterus and fallopian tubes with the vessels of the colon and rectum, as well as the appendix, bladder, kidneys and adrenal glands has been established. The ovaries have sympathetic adrenergic and parasympathetic

cholinergic innervation. Thick and thin bundles of nerve fibers enter through the gates of the ovaries into their medulla, both independently and together with blood vessels, forming a plexus around them. The blood vessels of the ovaries are abundantly supplied with nerves in the cortex. According to the branching of blood vessels in the ovaries, the accompanying nerve trunks are divided. Some of the nerve fibers, separating in the cortical layer from the nerve trunks and connecting with each other, form the finest nerve plexuses on the walls of blood vessels. Nerve fibers passing through the cortex surround the growing follicles (at the stage of large ripening follicles) and the mature (preovulatory) follicle, located in the area of ​​the inner and outer connective tissue membranes of the follicle (thecal membranes - theca interna and theca externa). This equally applies to functionally active atretic follicles (atretic follicles with a clearly defined theca interna).

According to existing concepts, during the reproductive period, the innervation of ripening and mature follicles, functionally active atretic follicles, and the corpus luteum is very complex.

The ovaries are covered with single-row cuboidal epithelium. Observations show that the surface epithelium of the ovaries of women (in contrast to the fetal and children's gonads) in histological sections, as a rule, is almost absent; more often it is stored in the depressions (grooves) of the uneven surface of the ovaries. Under the surface epithelium is the tunica albuginea, which is represented by a thin layer of dense connective tissue rich in collagen fibers. With age it thickens.

The cortex, which makes up the majority of the ovaries, contains numerous primordial follicles (usually under the tunica albuginea), follicles at various stages of maturation and atresia, and corpora lutea at various stages of development, including old corpora lutea dating back to previous menstrual cycles. The stroma is rich in round and spindle-shaped cells, which are located in a dense network of collagen fibers, and is poor in elastic fibers. The stroma of the medulla, in contrast to the cortical layer, is poor in cells, but rich in collagen and elastic fibers; in the medulla or hilum (in the latter - more often) there is an ovarian network (rete ovarica), a canal

the cells of which are lined with cubic epithelium, sometimes flattened. The ovarian rete is the remains of embryonic structures of mesonephric origin.

In area ovarian hilum, even in the medulla and mesovarium, hilus cells can be found (Fig. 1.7), which are analogues of the Leydig cells of the testicle. Chili cells are in close contact with blood vessels and nerves. In a histotopographical study of numerous stepwise sections, they are found in the ovarian hilum in 70-90% of cases. According to the observations of L. Nopoge and K. O'Naga, in 52% of cases, hilus cells can be found in the endo- and perisalpinx. Hilus cells (Leydig cells) are characterized by a polygonal and round shape, have eosinophilic granular cytoplasm containing brown pigment, as well as Reinke's crystalloids in the form of rod-shaped formations. Electron microscopic examination has established that these crystalloids have the structure of true crystals, but they are not detected in histological sections of a significant part of the carefully examined ovaries. When small vacuoles are detected in the cytoplasm of hilus cells, lipids are detected in the latter. can produce androgens, but in small quantities.In the hilum of the ovary, although rarely, embryonic remnants of the adrenal cortex are found

Rice. 1.7. Chili cells in the ovarian hilum, x 350 40

1 3. Reproductive organs of the reproductive system

kov (accessory adrenal glands). They occur at any age, including during the reproductive period.

Primordial follicles consist of an egg (oocyte) in the dictyoten of meiotic prophase, surrounded by a single row of flattened follicular epithelial cells (Fig. 1.8).

Rice. 1.8, Area of ​​the ovarian cortex, under the tunica albuginea of ​​which primordial follicles are visible (some of them without oocytes)

Primary follicles. Enlargement of the egg and rounding of the follicular cells (the latter acquire a cubic shape) are among the first signs of the beginning development of follicles. During the maturation of follicles, the cells surrounding the oocyte increase in size, and mitoses appear in them due to the action of FSH. The layer of follicular epithelium thickens to 8-10 rows of cells, turning into a small ripening follicle.

Secondary follicles. At this stage of follicle maturation, there is a further increase in the number of rows of follicular epithelium (granulosa), in the thickness of which a cavity begins to form. During this period, with the beginning of the transformation of a small ripening follicle into a large ripening follicle (Fig. 1.9), the formed thecal membranes (theca interna and theca externa) are clearly differentiated, and the egg is surrounded by a transparent zone (zona pellucida), represented by glycosaminoglycans. Unlike the primary follicle, the formation and subsequent differentiation of the secondary follicle is completely dependent

Rice. 1.9. A section of the wall of a secondary follicle at the stage of its transformation into a large ripening follicle; theca interna luteinized, x 300

from LH and FSH. As the follicle further matures and the amount of fluid in the follicular cavity increases (mainly due to the secretion of granulosa cells), the oocyte, immediately surrounded by granulosa, located radially in the form of a corona radiata, is shifted to the periphery of the follicle, thus forming an egg-bearing tubercle - cumulus oophorus. Among the granulosa of the secondary follicle, microcavities are sometimes found - Call-Exner bodies. Theca interna of secondary and especially preovulatory follicles is richly vascularized and contains lipids.

The preovulatory follicle is a mature follicle, the cavity of which is largest during this period, and it itself is shifted closer to the surface of the ovary. In the egg, the 1st division of maturation ends, the 1st polar body separates, and the oocyte passes into the 2nd division of maturation, which “freezes” at the meta-phase until fertilization.

The granulosa membrane of the preovulatory follicle (outside the egg-bearing tubercle) in humans consists of only 2-4 rows of follicular epithelial cells, in contrast to the mature ovarian follicle of animals. The egg in the preovulatory follicle is surrounded by 3-4 layers (rows) of densely spaced cells of the corona radiata. By the time of ovulation, the cells in this area loosen, increasing

The intercellular spaces also become smaller. Some cells are torn off and lysed. At the top of the preovulatory follicle (located at the surface level of the organ), a small avascular area is formed - the stigma. Before ovulation, the follicle wall in the stigma area is represented by one row of granulosa cells adjacent directly to the surface epithelium. The data presented are based on the results of a study of animal (mouse) ovaries obtained using scanning electron microscopy.

Until now, there are various hypotheses regarding the possible mechanisms of ovulation. For a long time, there was a belief that at the moment of ovulation, the wall of a mature follicle, as a result of an increase in the size of the latter and an increase in intrafollicular pressure, ruptures and the egg, along with the follicular fluid, enters the fimbriae, and then into the ampullary part of the fallopian tube. In recent years, doubts have been expressed regarding this purely mechanical theory and other ideas have been put forward, some of which were generalized by B.I. Zheleznov, O.V. Volkova and N.S. Milovidova. These include the assumption of a leading role proteolytic enzymes in the process of follicle rupture, hypotheses about the possible significance of immune reactions in the mechanisms of ovulation development and the neuromuscular mechanism of the latter.

One recent hypothesis is that the mature human and mammalian follicle contains smooth muscle cells or cells that share many of the characteristic features of smooth muscle cells. This has been proven by electron microscopy (detection of myofilaments) and immunohistological studies (detection of contractile proteins - actin and myosin). These cells, located in the fibrous connective tissue of theca externa, are not related to blood vessels. According to some authors, the contractile activity of the follicle wall is ensured by both adrenergic α-receptors and cholinergic receptors, and relaxation of the follicle wall is carried out through β2-adrenergic receptors. These mechanisms of contractile activity can directly influence intrafollicular pressure and the ovulation process. After ovulation, the follicle cavity collapses, and its walls take on the appearance of scallops; at this place it subsequently develops yellow body.

Chapter 1. Structure and function of the reproductive system in the age aspect

It is generally accepted that only one mature follicle undergoes spontaneous cyclic ovulation. However, observations show that more than one fresh corpus luteum can sometimes be found in the ovary. This fact is explained as a consequence of ovulation of more than one follicle at different times in the same cycle. The reasons for the non-simultaneous formation of two dominant follicles during one menstrual cycle remain not completely clear at the present time, but the fact itself has been proven. This is also evidenced by instructions according to which ovulation occurs twice in the same month (once in each ovary) approximately once every 7.5 years.

Thus, during the menstrual cycle, several follicles develop in a woman’s ovaries, although only one (rarely two) reaches the mature follicle stage. The remaining follicles that have begun to develop more often undergo cystic and then obliterative atresia, resulting in fibrous (hyaline) atretic bodies. The theca interna of follicles at the stage of atresia, as well as large maturing and mature follicles, contain lipids. Theca interna of atretic follicles may show signs of hyperplasia and/or luteinization. When there are significant accumulations of luteinized cells related to theca interna, they are called interstitial gland. According to modern concepts, the interstitial gland is an endocrine formation and, like the theca interna of follicles, produces estrogens. It has been suggested that during the reproductive period, the interstitial gland serves as an important source of estrogen secretion in the postovulatory phase of each menstrual cycle.

As is known, in the development of a fresh corpus luteum there are three stages: proliferation, vascularization and flowering. At the proliferation stage, granulosa cells multiply and luteinize theca interna cells. A few hours later, luteinization of granulosa begins. However, by this time it does not reach the severity that is characteristic of theca lutein cells. At the vascularization stage, thin-walled blood vessels theca interna grow into the granulosoluteal tissue. The latter move towards the remaining central cavity of the corpus luteum, usually containing a blood clot (the so-called central nucleus of the corpus luteum). Capillaries entwine every cell of the yellow

I 3. Reproductive organs of the reproductive system

bodies and, together with the accompanying connective tissue, surround the central core. Granulosa cells become large and polygonal. Their cytoplasm is acidophilic. In the small dark nuclei of luteal cells, mitoses are detected before the 18th cycle. At the flowering stage of the corpus luteum, it is finally formed and reaches a size of 1.0-1.5 cm. Its cells are sharply increased in size, rich in cytoplasm containing tiny droplets of lipids and lipochrome pigment, large vesicular nuclei with the presence of nucleoli. Granulosolutein cells, unlike theca lutein cells, produce progesterone. Theca-luteal cells, located on the periphery of the corpus luteum (they are smaller in size than luteal cells), produce estrogens. The human corpus luteum remains in its flowering stage for 10-12 days.

Dystrophic changes in luteal cells are the beginning of the reverse development of the corpus luteum. They manifest themselves in the form of vacuolization, accumulation of large-droplet neutral fat, pyknosis of nuclei, reduction in cell size, ingrowth of connective tissue with the replacement of decaying luteal cells. According to the data given in the literature, submicroscopically in luteocytes of the regressing corpus luteum, disorganization of the cytoplasmic reticulum and matrix, the formation of autophagic vacuoles and myelin structures, and an increase in the amount of lipids and lysosomes are noted.

It is generally accepted that the reverse development of the corpus luteum begins at the end of the menstrual cycle, however, according to B.I. Zheleznov, E. Novak and J. Woodruff, A. Blaustein, regression of the corpus luteum can begin from the 21st to the 23rd day of the cycle. The reverse development of the corpus luteum continues for at least 2 months, ending with the formation of the white body, which is a hyaline formation.

The ovaries have a well-developed not only circulatory system, but also a lymphatic system. The features and degree of vascularization of follicles depend on the development of theca interna in both growing and functionally active atretic follicles. During differentiation in the maturing follicle of thecal membranes, theca interna (compared to theca externa) is especially rich in capillaries; Lymphatic microvessels are distributed in the same way. According to the data given in the literature, the most pronounced vascularization was observed in preovulatory follicles, which may be due to an increase not only in newly formed ones, but also

Chapter 1. Structure and function of the reproductive system in the age aspect

functioning capillaries. The ovulatory process begins with the dilation and congestion of blood vessels in the microenvironment of the follicle. In the first stages of development of the corpus luteum, there is an abundance of wide blood-filled capillaries at the periphery of theca interna. In the initial stage of follicular atresia, a characteristic reaction of the microvascular bed appears in the form of expansion of the capillaries and their overflow with blood. In the process of further atresia of the follicles, along with capillaries that do not have structural disorders, capillaries with obvious signs of destruction are revealed. With atresia of follicles that have a pronounced theca interna layer, their cells grow in parallel with the capillaries of the inner thecal membrane. In general, cyclically repeating processes of follicle development, ending with ovulation with the subsequent formation of the corpus luteum, are accompanied by the formation of small blood vessels and microvessels - capillaries. After regression of the corpus luteum, the capillaries gradually become empty.

1.3.1.2. The fallopian tubes

The fallopian tubes of a sexually mature woman, located in the small pelvis (almost across the latter), are covered with peritoneum. Along the lower edge of each of the tubes, a fold of the peritoneum, which is the upper part of the broad ligament, forms the mesentery - the mesosal pinx.

In the fallopian tubes, the narrowest and shortest part is the intramural or interstitial part, which passes through the wall of the uterus. Adjacent to it is the isthmic part (isthmus), which is approximately 2-3 cm long. The isthmus is followed by the ampullary part (it makes up about 2/3 of the entire length of the tube), which turns into a funnel, the edges of which are equipped with fimbriae; one of them (fimbria ovarica) runs along the edge of the mesentery, reaching the ovary. The length of the fallopian tubes in women of reproductive age varies from 9 to 13 cm, averaging 10-11 cm. In cross section, the wall of the tube consists of three membranes: serous, muscular and mucous. The serous membrane is represented by mesothelium, under which there is a small amount of connective tissue, muscle fibers and blood vessels. The arterial blood supply has a dual origin. It is provided by the tubal and ovarian branches of the uterine artery,

I 3. Reproductive organs of the reproductive system

walking in mesosalinx; There is evidence that the tubal branch of the uterine artery anastomoses with the tubal branch of the ovarian artery. The anastomosing branches of the uterine and ovarian veins run parallel to the arterial vessels, also localized in the mesosalix. Lymphatic vessels accompany blood vessels, mainly ovarian vessels.

The muscular lining of the tube consists of smooth muscle and is usually represented by two layers: the outer longitudinal and the inner circular; however, in the intramural part the muscular layer, reaching almost 1 cm in thickness, also has an internal longitudinal layer. The thinnest muscular layer is in the ampullary part (about 0.1 cm); in the isthmus it reaches a thickness of about 0.5 cm. The number of vessels in the muscular layer increases as it approaches the ampulla. The funnel is especially rich in them.

During the reproductive period, the fallopian tubes have pronounced vascular adaptations to deposit shunt blood flow. According to B.I. Glukhovets et al. , blood deposition is ensured by multiple postcapillary sinuses and obturator venules, characteristic of the fimbrial-ampullary section of the tubes. The main mechanism for shunting blood flow in the fallopian tubes is represented by closing arteries and arteriolo-venular anastomoses located in the outer layer of the wall of the ampullar-isthmic part. In addition, arteriolo-venular hemi-shunts, or “false anastomoses”, are identified throughout the entire tube, which are an additional route for juxtacapillary blood flow.

The fallopian tubes are innervated by branches of the pelvic and ovarian plexuses. The main nerve plexus in the tubes is formed in their subserous layer, from where the nerve fibers go towards the serous and muscular membranes of the organ. Each of the fallopian tubes has sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation.

The mucous membrane (endosalpinx) forms wide longitudinal folds, is represented by single-row cylindrical epithelium and, in small quantities, loose fibrous connective tissue (lamina propria) containing vessels, spindle-shaped connective tissue cells and nerve endings; in small quantities there are histiocytes, lymphocytes and mast cells, as well as single leukocytes and plasma cells. Cellular elements predominate

Chapter 1. Structure and function of the reproductive system in the age aspect

in the stroma of the mucous membrane of the isthmus, and vice versa, there are more fibrous structures in the ampullary part than in the isthmus. In each section of the fallopian tubes, the endosalpinx has a characteristic structure: in the ampullary part, the folds of the mucous membrane are high, characterized by pronounced branching, in the isthmus they are lower and lack secondary branching, in the intramural part, the folds of the endosalpinx are small, in the amount of 5-6, and sometimes completely absent . According to modern concepts, the structural features of the folds of the mucous membrane in each section of the fallopian tubes are associated with their function. Thus, apparently, the fimbriae are characterized by the function of capturing the egg, and the complex branched relief of the folds of the endosalpinx in the ampullary part prevents nidation of the oocyte and at the same time promotes fertilization, which occurs precisely in the ampulla of the tube; As for the folds of the mucous membrane of the isthmus, its functional role is manifested in the secretion of substances necessary for the life of the egg. There is evidence that the isthmus region is a zone of active secretion.

Before moving on to highlight the structural and morphofunctional features of the tubal epithelium, we should dwell on some changes in the state of fibrous structures and vessels, on cellular reactions and their other manifestations. Without delving into the analysis of structural restructuring and morphofunctional changes in the stroma and blood vessels, we will present only some facts that indicate their significance not only in a scientific, but also in a practical sense. Thus, according to data provided by O.V. Volkova, the functional state of the microcirculation system is subject to hormonal influences. By the time of ovulation, the tortuosity of arterioles gradually increases, dilation of capillaries, stromal edema and a sharp expansion of lymphatic microvessels are observed. In the luteal phase, as the author puts it, “normalization” of microcirculation parameters is noted. As our observations show, at the end of the menstrual cycle, hyperemia reappears and the lymphatic vessels sharply expand (Fig. 1.10), and swelling of the organ wall develops. In the differential histological diagnosis, the changes found in the fallopian tubes during menstruation or shortly after it play a role: disintegration of the stroma of the endosalpinx in the presence of dilated lymphatic and blood vessels in the latter, a few lymphocytes

1.3. Reproductive organs of the reproductive system

and single plasma cells and leukocytes; focal accumulations of the latter in the lumen of the fallopian tubes or one of them are not such a rare occurrence in such observations (Fig. 1.11). The fact of cyclic fluctuations of mast cells in the wall of the fallopian tubes throughout the menstrual cycle has been established.

Rice. 1.10. The section of the fallopian tube in its isthmic-ampullary part,

in places with a sharp expansion of lymphatic vessels in the folds

mucous membrane, x 65

Rice. 1.11. Fragment of the endosalpinx of the ampullary part with various types of tubal epithelium; ciliated cells predominate in the follicular phase of the cycle, x 400

Chapter 1. Structure and function of the reproductive system in the age aspect

a relatively small number of stromal cells (their number is less than in the endometrial stroma), focal decidual transformation of the mucous membrane of the fallopian tubes is observed during pregnancy and in the early postpartum period in approximately 8% of cases.

Thus, the stromal and vascular components undergo different histophysiological changes. This equally applies to the tubal epithelium, the state of which is characterized by significant diversity, reflecting the functional state of its main cellular types. The latter are characterized by various structural and functional changes: they are observed, for example, in the epithelial cells of the fallopian tubes in various phases of the menstrual cycle, during pregnancy and lactation, as well as in postmenopause. In the tubal epithelium in women of reproductive age, four main types of cells can be distinguished: 1) ciliated (ciliated); 2) secretory; 3) basal (intraepithelial vesicular, indifferent); 4) insert, or pin-shaped. At the same time, there are still disagreements in assessing the cellular composition of the tubal epithelium, both regarding the number of cell types and their function. A. Ham and D. Cormack distinguish only two main types of tubal epithelial cells: ciliated and secretory. It is these two types of epithelial cells that were identified using scanning electron microscopy by O. V. Volkova et al. . The issue of the degree of independence of ciliated and secretory cell types and the possibility of their mutual transformation is also discussed.

ciliated cells, like secretory ones, they are found throughout the fallopian tubes (see Fig. 1.11). The distribution of these types of cells in different parts of the tube is inversely proportional to each other: the number of ciliated cells, most numerous in the fimbriae (85%), gradually decreases towards the uterine end of the tube, and the number of secretory cells, on the contrary, increases. Ciliated cells differ from secretory cells not only in the presence of cilia (about 50%), but also in other cytological features: they are wider than secretory cells, and their rounded nucleus is located in the center of the cell. The formation and growth of cilia of ciliated cells, as well as an increase in the height of the latter, is promoted by estrogens. Progesterone stimulates

1 3 Reproductive organs of the reproductive system

no secretion of secretory cells. Secretory cells(they, like ciliated cells, have a cylindrical shape) are characterized by more pronounced basophilia of the cytoplasm, containing a larger number of organelles than in ciliated cells; their ovoid nuclei are extended along the cell. basal cells, located on the basement membrane, they are distinguished by their round shape, light cytoplasm and round dark-colored nucleus. Pin cells have a rod-shaped nucleus and scanty cytoplasm.

In the 1st half of the menstrual cycle, the surface of the epithelial cover of the fallopian tubes is smooth. The height of secretory and ciliated cells at the beginning of the follicular phase usually does not exceed 20 microns, by the time of ovulation it reaches 30-35 microns. Basal cells in the follicular phase are only single, up to 8 µm high, and pin-shaped cells are absent at this time. There is an opinion that the physiological regeneration of ciliated and secretory cells is carried out due to the amitotic division of basal cells. However, mitotic division cannot be ignored. In our observations, mitoses, although rarely, were found in basal cells not only during hyperplastic processes of the tubal epithelium, but also in unchanged or slightly changed tubes in women of reproductive age with a two-phase menstrual cycle. The presence of mitoses in the basal cells of the tubal epithelium, mainly in the late stage of proliferation, has been noted in recent years by B. I. Glukhovets et al. . During the 2nd half of the menstrual cycle, the height of epithelial cells, mainly ciliated, decreases to 18-20 microns. Secretory cells acquire a variety of shapes, predominantly goblet- or pear-shaped, with their narrow end facing the basement membrane. The apical part of the secretory cells protrudes above the surface of the ciliated cells, as a result of which the surface of the epithelium of the tubal mucosa becomes uneven. Among the secretory and ciliated cells of the epithelium, pin-shaped cells can be found. Towards the end of the luteal phase of the cycle, the number of basal and peg-shaped cells increases. It is generally accepted that pin-shaped cells are dystrophically altered ciliated and secretory cells. In the process of turning into pin-shaped cells, ciliated cells decrease in transverse size, their nuclei become pyknotic, rod-shaped, and the cilia disappear. Formation of pin-shaped

Chapter 1. Structure and function of the reproductive system in the age aspect

cells from secretory cells occurs after the latter secrete secretory material. Subsequently, the pin-shaped cells undergo autolysis, although individual dystrophically altered cells are also found in the lumen of the fallopian tubes.

Cyclic processes in the fallopian tubes are also evidenced by morphofunctional changes in the tubal epithelium in various phases of the menstrual cycle. According to N.I. Kondrikov, during the menstrual cycle, cyclic changes in the content and distribution of glycogen, RNA, proteins, lipids and the activity of alkaline and acid phosphatases are observed in the tubal epithelium. A decrease in glycogen content in the apical part of ciliated cells after ovulation indicates the connection of these changes with the increasing ciliated activity of the tubal epithelium.

It is known that the function of secretory cells is reduced to the production of substances necessary for the viability of the egg. The lumen of the tube contains a certain amount of fluid - secretion, including glycoproteins, acid glycosaminoglucuronglycans, prostaglandin F 2 oc, electrolytes and various enzymes that provide an optimal environment for sperm and eggs. The maximum activity of secretory cells occurs in the luteal phase. Ciliated cells play an important role in ensuring the movement of the egg through the tube into the uterus. However, an equally important factor is the peristalsis of the fallopian tube itself due to active contractions of its smooth muscles. It is generally accepted that peristalsis of the fallopian tube is most pronounced during the period of ovulation. Since one of the main functions of this organ is to capture the egg after ovulation, the funnel of the tube comes into contact with the ovary at the moment of ovulation, which is ensured by contractions of the muscles of the tube.

A certain role in the transport of the ovulated egg to the fimbrial end of the fallopian tube is assigned to the contractile activity of the tubo-ovarian ligament. During the period of ovulation, its spontaneous contractile activity increases 3 times in comparison with the late follicular and premenstrual phases, 6 times with the early follicular phase and 2 times with the luteal phase of the cycle. Under the influence of prostaglandin F 2 a and acetylcholine, the contractile activity of the tubo-ovarian ligaments increases 3 times.

Thus, in women with a normal menstrual cycle, cyclic structural and morphofunctional changes

1 3 Reproductive organs of the reproductive system

The formation of the tubal epithelium contributes to the creation of conditions for fertilization and the initial stages of development of the fertilized egg.

1.3.1.3. Uterus

The uterus is a pear-shaped muscular organ located in the middle of the pelvic cavity in the antev-ersio-flexio position. The uterus is divided into the fundus, body, isthmus (isthmic part) and cervix. The fundus of the uterus is the upper part of it, located in the area where the fallopian tubes arise. The uterus of a woman who has given birth is larger than that of a woman who has not given birth; and has a mass of 50 to 90 g. The total length of the uterus is 7-9 cm, of which the length of the cervix is ​​2.5-3.0 cm. The ratio of the length of the body to the cervix is ​​on average 2:1. The uterine body cavity has a triangular shape, the anteroposterior diameter of which is 2.5-3.5 cm, and the greatest width varies from 4.5 to 6 cm.

In the anteversio-flexio position, the uterus is held by the ligamentous apparatus. The round ligaments (they include smooth muscle tissue) extend from the corners of the uterus, located below and somewhat anterior to the fallopian tubes: they pass into the inguinal canals through their internal and external openings and end in the tissue of the pubis and labia majora. The broad ligaments of the uterus are a duplication of the peritoneum, extending from the lateral surfaces of the uterus to the lateral walls of the pelvis. To fix the uterus in a typical normal position, the round and broad ligaments are not as significant as the cardinal ligaments, which are powerful bundles of connective tissue and small bundles of smooth muscle tissue; both are located at the base of the broad ligaments. The uterosacral ligaments extend from the posterior surface of the cervix in the isthmus region and go to the rectum (partially intertwined with the muscular wall of the latter) and the sacrum. The supporting apparatus is the pelvic floor.

In its normal position, the uterus is mobile and easily moves when the condition of neighboring organs changes - when the bladder and rectum are full. The position of the uterus is influenced by the position of the woman’s body, the presence of pregnancy, lifting heavy objects and a number of other factors.

The blood supply to the uterus is provided by the uterine and ovarian arteries, which are interconnected by numerous

Chapter 1. Structure and function of the reproductive system in the age aspect

The male reproductive system is a complex of organs that are responsible for reproduction and procreation. The male reproductive system has a simpler structure than the female reproductive system. Specific reproductive features collectively characterize a person’s gender. The female and male reproductive systems have functional and anatomical differences. Those characteristics that are most unambiguous and can be used to distinguish the sex of a particular person are called sexual characteristics.

Depending on the location, the organs included in the male reproductive system are divided into:

• Internal, which are located inside the man’s body.
• External.

The anatomical features of the reproductive system determine the primary characteristics of gender, which are laid down and formed during the prenatal period. The male reproductive system includes internal organs located in the male pelvis:

1. Testicles (testicles).
2. Vas deferens.
3. Seminal vesicles with ejaculatory ducts.
4. Prostate gland.
5. Bulbous (bulbar) glands.

And the genitals (penis and scrotum) are located outside. The functions of the male reproductive system are under the control of the cerebral cortex, subcortical nerve centers, lumbar and sacral spinal cord, hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland. The anatomy of the male reproductive system determines the following functions:

• Gamete production.
• Production of testosterone and other male hormones.

The testicles (testicles) have the following structure: paired, located outside the pelvis in the scrotum - a bag-like formation of skin and a thin layer of muscle tissue. It is divided by a muscular septum into 2 sections, into which the testicles descend from the pelvic space in the second trimester of gestation. The testicles look like a slightly flattened ellipsoid.

The gonad is covered by a dense membrane of connective tissue, which, in the part facing the body, forms a cushion - the testicular mediastinum. From it, thin partitions (septa) pass into the inner part of the testicle, dividing the organ into 150-280 lobules. Inside each of the lobules there are several convoluted tubules (Sertoli glands), in the walls of which there are seed-forming elements that produce gametes. Between the tubules are cells of glandular tissue that produce the male hormone, testosterone.

Sperm are formed in the male testicles.

Meaning of clauses

Convoluted tubules penetrate the testicular membrane, enlarge and enter the accessory tributary, which passes into the vas deferens. The endothelium of the efferent tubules is formed by epithelium that helps transport gametes to the epididymis, where the germ cells mature. The epididymis, 5-6 cm long and 1 cm thick, is located on the posterior wall of the testicle and has the following structure:

1. Head.
2. Body.
3. Tail.

The functions of the epididymis are not only to deposit and ensure the maturation of sperm. This formation also selects male gametes. Spermophages are located in the walls of the epididymis - special cells that absorb and dissolve mutated and sedentary sperm. In addition, a secret is formed in each crypt of the epididymis, which is a nutrient medium for sperm and facilitates their transportation.

The common accessory duct passes into the vas deferens, the length of which is up to 0.5 m. Together with the nerves and vessels, it goes from the scrotum into the abdominal cavity, where its distal end expands and forms a capsule measuring 4x10 mm. Then the duct returns to the pelvis, unites with the seminal vesicle, passes through the prostate and flows into the urethra.

At the junction there are seminal tubercles - protrusions, which have a mesh structure and are adjacent to the back of the bladder. The wall of the seminal vesicle is lined with a mucous membrane that forms large folds and produces a secretion that liquefies the sperm. The vas deferens, the seminal vesicles and their ducts, and the vas deferens form the vas deferens, located outside the testicles.

The main function of the epididymis is to deposit and ensure the maturation of sperm.

The testicle is attached with the help of the spermatic cord to the posterior edge in such a way that it is located in the scrotum somewhat forward with its upper part. The size of the testicles and their topography may vary. As a rule, one testicle is higher than the other (the left one is slightly higher than the right). This structure can be justified by reducing the risk of compression of the testicles during movement. In the physiology of the male reproductive system, the urethra, or urethra, plays the role of a transport route for sperm. The length of the canal is about 19-22 cm. The following flow into the canal:

• Both vas deferens.
• Prostatic duct.
• Ducts of the seminal vesicles and many other glands.

The two largest of them are the Cooper's glands. Their secretion provides moisture and an alkaline environment that is important for sperm life.

Characteristics of the prostate and Cooper glands

The male reproductive system includes the prostate, which is an unpaired glandular-muscular formation. A small (4x5x2.5 cm) organ covers the urethra on all sides in the part that is located near the bladder. The lobed (30-50 lobules) structure of the gland contributes to the accumulation of secretions produced by glands localized in the walls of the lobules. The secretion they produce is necessary for the activation of germ cells. Prostate secretions include:

1. Various enzymes.
2. Fructose.
3. Lemon acid.
4. Salts of sodium, potassium, zinc, calcium, etc.

They influence sperm motility and their readiness to perform the fertilization function. The bulbous-urethral (bulbar, Cooper) gland is a paired formation that is located in the urogenital diaphragm at the root of the male penis. The duct of the bulbar gland opens into a slit-like opening into the urethral cavity. The secretion produced by the gland mixes with the ejaculate during the release of sperm from the urethra. Its functions are still unclear.

External genitalia

The phallus, penis, penis refers to the external organs of the reproductive system. Their structure and functions are interconnected. Thus, the phallus performs two functions - excreting urine from the bladder and introducing sperm into the woman’s genital tract. There is no relationship between the two functions, so when, for example, ejaculation occurs, the urinary function is blocked. The anatomy and structure of the penis is as follows - it consists of 2 parts:

• The base, or root, which is attached to the bones of the symphysis pubis.
• The trunk, which ends with a head on the dorsal part.

The internal structure of the male penis is as follows - it consists of 2 cavernous bodies and one spongy body. The phallus consists of 3 layers of porous tissue, which are modified vascular tissues. The inner layer has the following structure: it is represented by a spongy body that covers the urethra. Two processes (pedicles), which form the corpora cavernosa, are attached to the bottom of the pubic bones. Their anterior part connects with the spongy body, which, expanding in the distal part, forms a thickening, and in the proximal part - a head.

The head of the male penis is covered with a delicate skin equipped with nerve endings and cells that produce lubricant. It covers the head and, with the help of a frenulum, connects to the lower surface of the organ. The anatomy of the foreskin undergoes age-related changes. The cellular structure of the penis is due to the growth of the tunica albuginea, which covers both cavernous bodies, deep into the spongy and cavernous bodies in the form of trabeculae. This structure ensures erection of the male sexual organ.

Functional Features

The function of the reproductive system is the production of germ cells. In a man these are sperm, and in a woman they are eggs. Their fusion is called fertilization, which gives rise to the development of a new organism. Sexual reproduction, which provides the structure and physiology of the function of the human reproductive system, gives an advantage over the non-sexual species, since the combination of the hereditary properties of the organisms of a man and a woman allows the child to receive significantly more parental inclinations than if he received the material of only one person.

The carrier of hereditary information is the chromosomal apparatus of the germ cell. Thus, gametes contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, of which 22 pairs are identical in a representative of the stronger sex and a woman (autosomes), and one pair determines sex. In women these are two XX chromosomes, in men - XY. The sperm contains half the set of chromosomes. When an egg fuses with a sperm that carries the X chromosome, the female body (XX) develops.

If the male reproductive cell has a Y chromosome, then a male organism (XY) is formed. The chromosome contains a nucleus located in the head of the sperm. The structure of the male reproductive cell allows it to actively move due to the tail and penetrate into the egg. The nucleus is covered with a membrane - an acrosome, which contains special enzymes that allow gametes to perform their main task - fertilization. The physiology of reproductive function is impossible without sex hormones, which ensure the normal development of the reproductive system and are necessary for both the female and male body. Under their influence:

1. Protein synthesis increases.
2. There is an intensive increase in muscle tissue.
3. Bone calcification and skeletal growth occur.

The main function of the male reproductive system is the production of sperm.

Together with hormones produced by other endocrine glands, androgenic hormones ensure a man’s reproductive health – his fertility. The physiology and structure of the male phallus ensure sexual intercourse, as a result of which the function of fertilization becomes possible. Sexual activity is impossible without penile erection, which is a conditioned reflex and occurs in response to a set of certain sexual stimuli.

Fertilizing abilities

The structure of the male reproductive system determines the so-called morning erections. The entire system is innervated by very close nerve endings, so an overfilled bladder has a mechanical effect on the nerve endings at the base of the penis, which leads it to an erect state without sexual stimulation.

The physiology of erection is determined by the ability of the penis to increase in size. This is necessary not only for introducing the phallus into the woman’s genitals, but also for stimulating the nerve endings on the head. In this case, nerve impulses enter the nerve centers, which are located in the lumbosacral spinal cord. When the increased impulse exceeds the threshold of excitation, ejaculation occurs - the release of sperm into the woman’s reproductive system.

The physiology of the male reproductive system is normally designed to clearly perform the function of continuing the species. At one time, 2-8 ml of sperm are released, which contains 120 million sperm. This makes up only 5% of the contents of the ejaculate, the remaining 95% comes from the secretion of the glands of the reproductive system. In order to ensure a high level of fertility, it is necessary that more than 55% of sperm have normal morphology and more than half have high motility.

The main function of the male reproductive system is to continue the species.

Anatomically, the human reproductive system is designed to shorten as much as possible the path that the cell needs to travel, but at the same time, its physiology ensures that the egg is fertilized only with high-quality material. For example, a man’s reproductive function is impossible without:

• Normal operation of the system for selecting healthy and active sperm in the epididymis.
• The functioning of the glands that produce a secretion that neutralizes the acidic environment of a woman’s vagina.
• The level of hormonal levels, which provides neurohumoral regulation of the process.

The lifespan of a sperm in a woman’s genital tract is 2 days. The reproductive physiology of the system determined the production of such a large amount of seminal material in order to increase the chance of a single sperm to overcome obstacles on the way to the egg. The energy reserve of sperm is enough for 12-24 hours of active movements, and although they remain viable for another day, they will no longer be able to fertilize an egg.

The video shows the difficult path that sperm must go through to fulfill its reproductive purpose. From a physiological point of view, you can improve a man’s fertility by:

• Stimulates testosterone production.
• Introducing it into the body.

You can increase sperm activity and improve sperm quality by taking vitamin and mineral complexes and normalizing your lifestyle. But not only physiology influences the process of ejaculation and erection. The psycho-emotional state is of great importance. For example, taking hallucinogenic mushrooms increases spermatogenesis and increases libido, as they affect the physiology of the reproductive system, increasing the susceptibility of receptors.

And psychedelic surroundings, music or colors, on the contrary, have a depressing effect on a man’s physiology. However, physiology alone cannot explain the sexual attractiveness of some female phenotypes. Therefore, the psychological component is an important component in the normal functioning of the reproductive system. The physiology and structure of the male reproductive organs is the minimum knowledge necessary for any man to avoid the development of pathology or a decrease in the function of one of the most important systems in human life.

An important factor in planning future offspring is not only the health of the woman, but also the proper functioning of the systems of the male body. The male reproductive system is a set of organs responsible for procreation (reproduction).

Such a system is responsible for performing the following functions:

1. Production and transportation of male reproductive cells (sperm).
2. Delivery of sperm to the woman’s reproductive system (during sexual intercourse).
3. The production of hormones responsible for the proper functioning of the male reproductive system.

The physiology of the male reproductive system is closely related to the body's urinary system.

Let's look at the structure and functions of the male reproductive organs (with photos).

Modern anatomy gives a complete picture of the physiology of the structure of the human reproductive system. There is a lot of video and photographic materials, many articles and medical manuals have been written that discuss the functions and structure of the reproductive system.

Male puberty occurs not much later than puberty in women, and does not have such a clearly defined indicator as female menstruation. Men usually reach full sexual maturity by the age of 18, although full-fledged sperm are produced by the age of 13-14. Unlike the female body, male reproductive cells (gametes) continue to be produced throughout the entire period of life after puberty. Of course, it should be noted that spermatogenesis in older men occurs less intensely, and the number and activity of the cells produced may decrease. However, their ability to fertilize remains.

The male reproductive system consists of two types of reproductive organs: external and internal.

• External:

1. Scrotum.
2. Penis (penis).

• Internal:

1. Prostate gland (prostate).
2. Seminal vesicles.
3. Testicles and their appendages.
4. Vas deferens.

Let's look at the structure of the male reproductive organs in more detail.

The musculocutaneous pouch, inside which the testicles with appendages and the duct responsible for ejaculation are located, is called the scrotum. The anatomy of the scrotum is quite simple: it is divided by a septum into two chambers, each of which contains one of the two gonads. The main functions are to protect the testicles and maintain optimal temperature for the process of sperm formation and development (spermatogenesis). In terms of its structure, the scrotum consists of several layers, including skin, as well as muscle tissue that raises or lowers the testicles under certain influences (changes in ambient temperature, physiological processes - arousal, ejaculation).

The penis is the main organ responsible for urination and delivery of seminal fluid to the woman’s body. The anatomy and physiology of the penis distinguishes three main sections of the structure: the head, the base, and the body itself. In the upper part there are two so-called cavernous bodies. They are located parallel to each other and run from the base to the head of the penis. Below the corpus cavernosum is the corpus spongiosum, which contains the urethra. All of them are covered with a dense membrane containing chambers (lacunae) that fill with blood during sexual arousal. It is the lacunae that contribute to the occurrence of an erection. The function of external protection of the body is performed by the skin, which is quite elastic and capable of stretching. The endings of the spongy and cavernous bodies are located in the head of the penis, covered with thin skin with many nerve endings.

The external genitalia, which represent the male reproductive system, continue to grow only during maturation.

Testicles (testicles) are the most important paired organs that influence the process of sperm formation. Testicular growth is quite slow and accelerates only during puberty. Each of the paired organs, according to its structure, is divided into seminal lobules, in which seminiferous tubules that take part in spermatogenesis are located. These tubules make up about 70 percent of their volume. Passing through the membrane, the tubules enter the epididymis, in which the ability of sperm to fertilize is finally formed.

The epididymis is a narrow duct adjacent to the testicle and is responsible for the final maturation of sperm, their accumulation and movement through the genital tract. The process of spermatogenesis takes place in this part of the male reproductive system. The length of the duct itself is about 8 m, and the movement of sperm to the place of their accumulation takes about 14 days. The anatomy of the appendage consists of three main sections: tail, body and head. The head is divided into lobules, which flow into the duct of the epididymis and pass into the vas deferens.

The prostate gland is located in close proximity to the bladder and is palpable only through the rectum. The dimensions of the gland of a healthy man are set within certain limits: width from 3 to 5 cm, length from 2 to 4 cm, thickness from 1.5 to 2.5 cm. In case of size deviations from the norm, it is necessary to urgently carry out diagnostics to make an accurate diagnosis and prescribing the correct treatment. The gland is divided into two lobes connected by an isthmus. The urethra and the ejaculatory ducts pass through it.

The main function of the prostate gland is the production of testosterone, a hormone that has a direct effect on the process of fertilization of the egg. In addition to the secretory function of the prostate, a motor function can be distinguished: muscle tissue is involved in the release of prostate secretions during ejaculation, and is also responsible for urinary retention. Thanks to the secretion produced, the penetration of urethral infections into the upper tract of the male urinary system is blocked. With age, there is an increased risk of developing various prostate diseases that affect its physiology. As a result, a man’s reproductive function decreases.

The seminal vesicles are another paired organ of the male reproductive system, located above the prostate gland, between the walls of the rectum and bladder. The main function of the vesicles is the production of an important active substance (secret) that is part of the seminal fluid. The secretion nourishes sperm, increasing their resistance to the negative effects of the external environment. It is a source of energy for gametes. The ducts of the seminal vesicles join the ducts responsible for the ejaculatory duct, and at the end form the ejaculatory duct. Physiological disorders or diseases of the seminal vesicles can cause problems with conception, as well as complete infertility in a man.

Reproductive system dysfunction

According to statistics, women are much more likely to undergo preventive examinations and tests to identify problems of the reproductive system. Men, for the most part, prefer to see doctors only in case of exacerbations of diseases or obvious violations of the physiology of the functioning of the genital organs. At the same time, the reproductive health of men and women is one of the most important indicators during reproduction. During pregnancy planning, couples often encounter problems with conception caused by a malfunction of the male genitourinary system.

Main causes of violations:

• Infectious diseases.
• Malfunction of the prostate gland.
• Colds and inflammation.

Sexual dysfunction as a consequence of the disease is quite obvious. However, there are other reasons. First of all, it is necessary to talk about the wrong lifestyle: taking psychoactive substances that cause a psychedelic effect (for example, hallucinogenic mushrooms), other drugs and alcohol. In addition, the cause may be congenital anomalies of the structure of organs that manifest themselves anatomically.

Let us dwell on the consideration of the most common diseases affecting the reproductive system.

First of all, it is worth talking about such a disease as prostatitis. This is the most common cause of reproductive dysfunction in men. Currently, every fourth man suffers from prostate inflammation to one degree or another. As a rule, men aged 40 years and older are at risk. However, younger men are also susceptible to the disease. The influence of the gland on the physiology of the reproductive system is very high. In order to improve its functioning, it is necessary to undergo a full examination, based on the results of which treatment will be prescribed. Taking medications on your own without consulting a doctor may increase the risk of complications.

Another disease that affects the physiology of the reproductive system is vesiculitis. This pathology is characterized by inflammation of the seminal vesicles. A high risk of this disease exists in men suffering from chronic prostatitis. The main symptom of the disease: pain during ejaculation, in the perineum and groin, as well as general weakness. In advanced forms, treatment is carried out surgically; if diagnosed early, treatment with antibacterial drugs is possible.

To prevent diseases of the reproductive system, you must adhere to the following basic rules:

1. High-quality and varied food.
2. Complex physical activity.
3. Preventative examinations of narrow specialists.
4. Regular sex life.
5. Exclusion of casual sexual relations.

Also, do not forget about the rules of personal hygiene and adherence to sleep and wakefulness. If you experience any symptoms of diseases of the reproductive system (itching, redness, pain, cracks in the skin or swelling), you must immediately consult a doctor for diagnostics and an accurate diagnosis. It is important to remember that letting any disease take its course or self-medicating can lead to even greater disruption of physiological processes. Advanced stages of some diseases can only be cured through surgery, and some diseases of the reproductive system become chronic and increase the risk of developing complications such as infertility or impaired potency.

Only biologically mature individuals have the ability to reproduce. During puberty (puberty), a physiological restructuring of the body occurs, manifested in physical and chemical changes that mark the onset of biological maturity. During this period, the girl’s fat deposits around the pelvis and hips increase, the mammary glands grow and become round, and hair growth develops on the external genitalia and armpits. Soon after the appearance of these so-called secondary sexual characteristics, the menstrual cycle is established.

Boys' physique changes noticeably during puberty; the amount of fat on the stomach and hips decreases, the shoulders become wider, the timbre of the voice decreases, and hair appears on the body and face. Spermatogenesis (production of sperm) in boys begins somewhat later than menstruation in girls.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF WOMEN

Reproductive organs.

The female internal reproductive organs include the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina.

Ovaries

Two glandular organs weighing 2-3.5 g each are located behind the uterus on both sides. In a newborn girl, each ovary contains an estimated 700,000 immature eggs. All of them are enclosed in small round transparent sacs - follicles. The latter ripen one by one, increasing in size. The mature follicle, also called the Graafian vesicle, ruptures, releasing the egg. This process is called ovulation. The egg then enters the fallopian tube. Typically, during the entire reproductive period of life, approximately 400 eggs capable of fertilization are released from the ovaries. Ovulation occurs monthly (around the middle of the menstrual cycle). The burst follicle sinks into the thickness of the ovary, is overgrown with scar connective tissue and turns into a temporary endocrine gland - the so-called. corpus luteum, which produces the hormone progesterone.

The fallopian tubes,

like the ovaries, they are paired formations. Each of them extends from the ovary and connects to the uterus (from two different sides). The length of the pipes is approximately 8 cm; they bend slightly. The lumen of the tubes passes into the uterine cavity. The walls of the tubes contain inner and outer layers of smooth muscle fibers, which constantly contract rhythmically, which ensures the wave-like movements of the tubes. The inside walls of the tubes are lined with a thin membrane containing ciliated (ciliated) cells. Once the egg enters the tube, these cells, along with muscle contractions of the walls, ensure its movement into the uterine cavity.

The female reproductive system has a rather complex structure. Thus, in the structure of the female reproductive system, external and internal genitalia are distinguished. The first include the labia minora and majora, pubis and clitoris.

External genitalia

The labia are 2 pairs of folds of skin that cover the entrance to the vagina and perform a protective function. On top, at the point of their connection, is the clitoris, which in its structure is completely similar to the male penis. It also increases in size during sexual contact and is a woman’s erogenous zone. The set of organs and formations listed above is called the vulva.

Internal genital organs

The internal organs that make up the female reproductive system are completely surrounded on all sides by the bones of the pelvis. These include:

• 2 ovaries;
• uterus with tubes;
• vagina.

The uterus is located exactly in the center of the pelvis, behind the bladder and in front of the rectum. It is supported by double elastic ligaments that keep it constantly in one position. It is a hollow organ with a pear shape. Its walls contain a muscle layer that has great contractility and extensibility. This is why the uterus increases significantly in size during pregnancy as the fetus grows. After childbirth, it is restored to its original size within 6 weeks.

The cervix is ​​an extension of its body. This is a narrow tube that has thick walls and leads to the top of the vagina. With the help of the cervix, the uterine cavity communicates with the vagina.

The vagina in its structure resembles a tube, the length of which is on average 8 cm. It is through this channel that sperm penetrate into the uterus. The vagina has great elasticity, which allows it to expand during the birth process. Thanks to a well-developed network of blood vessels, the vagina swells slightly during intercourse.

The tubes are where the sperm meets the egg after ovulation. The length of the fallopian tubes is about 10 cm. They end in a funnel-shaped expansion. Their inner walls are completely covered with ciliated epithelial cells. It is with their help that the mature egg moves to the uterine cavity.

The ovaries are part of the woman’s endocrine system and are mixed secretion glands. They are usually located below the navel in the abdominal cavity. This is where the formation of eggs and their maturation occurs. In addition, they synthesize 2 hormones that have a huge impact on the body - progesterone and estrogen. Even at birth, a girl’s ovaries contain about 400 thousand eggs. Every month, throughout the life of a woman, 1 egg matures, which is released into the abdominal cavity. This process is called ovulation. If the egg is fertilized, pregnancy occurs.

Possible diseases of the reproductive system

In order to avoid the development of diseases, every woman should know how her reproductive system works. Diseases of the female reproductive system are quite diverse and in many cases are the cause of infertility.

The development of abnormalities in a woman’s reproductive system can often be observed. As a rule, this happens during embryogenesis. Examples of such anomalies include vaginal agenesis, cervical agenesis, uterine agenesis, tubal agenesis and other defects.

Or Reproductive system Reproduction system - the system of reproductive organs of multicellular living organisms (animals, plants, fungi, etc.), which is responsible for their reproduction.

In animals, the reproductive systems of representatives of different sexes of the same species are often very different (unlike other organ systems, they differ little between representatives of different sexes). These differences lead to the creation of new combinations of genetic material, which can lead to greater fitness in the offspring. Some substances (hormones and pheromones) also play an important role in the reproductive system of animals.

Most vertebrates have a reproductive system with a similar structure: gonads (gonads) - excretory ducts - external genitalia. The major organs of the human reproductive system include the genitals (penis and vagina) and internal organs, including the gonads, which produce sex cells (testes and ovaries). Diseases of the human reproductive system are widespread, especially sexually transmitted diseases.

Human reproductive system

Human reproduction occurs as a result of internal fertilization and occurs during sexual intercourse. Humans as a biological species are characterized by a high degree of sexual dimorphism. In addition to the difference in primary sexual characteristics, there is a significant difference in secondary sexual characteristics and sexual behavior.

Female reproductive system

The female reproductive system is divided into 2 groups of organs: external and internal. The external genitalia include: the labia minora and majora with the glands located on them, the clitoris and the entrance to the vagina; to the internal ones - vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries. The vagina opens outward through the vulva, which includes the labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, and urethra; During sexual intercourse, this area is moistened by secretions from the Bartholin glands.

The female reproductive system consists of organs located primarily inside the body in the pelvic region. It consists of three main parts: the vagina, into which the sperm enters, the uterus, in which the embryo develops, and the ovaries, in which the egg matures. Female breasts also belong to the reproductive system and play an important role in the postnatal development of the child.

Male reproductive system

The male reproductive system is a system of organs located outside the body near the pelvis that are involved in the process of reproduction. The primary function of the male reproductive system is to produce male reproductive gametes (sperm) to fertilize an egg. The male reproductive organs include the testicles and their ducts, the penis, and an auxiliary organ, the prostate gland.

Testicles (testicles) are paired glands suspended in the scrotum on the spermatic cord. The weight of each testicle is 10-15 g. They are oval in shape and consist of seminiferous tubules. The direct purpose of the testicles is to produce sperm - a fluid containing male reproductive cells - sperm. In addition, the testicles are responsible for the secretion of male sex hormones - androgens.

Diseases of the human reproductive system

Like other complex organ systems, the human reproductive system is affected by a large number of diseases. There are four main categories:

• congenital, or congenital;
• tumors - such as cervical cancer or penile cancer
• infections that are often sexually transmitted;
• Functional impairments caused by environmental factors, injury, psychosomatic factors and autoimmune diseases. The most well-known type of functional disorder is infertility, which can be caused by many diseases.

Reproductive system of vertebrates

Mammals

The reproductive system of mammals is organized according to a single plan, but there are significant differences between the reproductive systems of many animals and humans. For example, the penis of most male mammals is in an untied state inside the body and also contains bone or baculum. Additionally, males in most species are not in a constant state of fertility, as in primates.

Like humans, in most groups of mammals the testes are located in the scrotum, but there are also species in which the testes are located inside the body, on the ventral surface of the body, and in others, for example, elephants, the testes are located in the abdominal cavity near the kidneys.

Female marsupials have two vaginas, which are connected by a common outlet, but lead to two different sections inside the uterus. Marsupial babies usually develop in the external pouch, which contains the mammary glands. The newborn, having formed an embryo, attaches to the gland and gradually completes postnatal development.

Birds

In male and female birds there is a cloaca, an opening through which eggs, sperm and waste products come out. Sexual intercourse occurs when the lips of the cloaca of a male and female are connected, and in the male the walls of the cloaca are slightly turned outward. Thus, the man transfers sperm into the female's cloaca. This process is sometimes called "cloacal kissing." Some bird species (most waterfowl) have a special organ, the phallus, that performs a function similar to that of the mammalian penis. Female birds lay amniotic eggs, which develop into young. Birds, unlike most vertebrates, have only one functioning ovary and a uterine ovary. Birds, like mammals, show a high level of care for their offspring.

Reptiles and amphibians

Almost all reptiles exhibit sexual dimorphism, with fertilization occurring through the cloaca. Some reptiles lay eggs, while others are viviparous. The reproductive organs are usually located in the cloaca. Most male reptiles have copulatory organs that are hidden or turned inside out and hidden inside the body. Male turtles and crocodiles have a penis-like organ, while male snakes and lizards have paired organs.

In most amphibians, external fertilization is observed. It usually occurs in water, although in some amphibians (legless amphibians) fertilization is internal. In all amphibians, the gonads are paired and connected to the cloaca by excretory ducts.

Fish

The methods of fish reproduction are varied. Most fish spawn in water, where external fertilization occurs. During breeding, females release large numbers of eggs (spawn) into the cloaca and then into the water, and one or more males of the same species secrete “jelly,” a white liquid containing large numbers of sperm. There are also fish with internal fertilization, which occurs with the help of pelvic or anal fins modified in such a way that a specialized organ similar to the penis is formed. There are a small number of viviparous fish species, that is, the development of fertilized eggs occurs in the cloaca, and it is not the eggs that are released into the external environment, but the fry.

Most fish species have paired gonads - either ovaries or testes. However, there are some hermaphroditic species, such as Pomacentridae, which live in coral reefs.

Reproductive system of invertebrates

Invertebrates have very different reproductive systems, the only common feature of which is the laying of eggs. Apart from cephalopods and arthropods, almost all invertebrates are hermaphroditic and reproduce through external fertilization.

Cephalopods

All cephalopods are characterized by sexual dimorphism. They reproduce by laying eggs. Most fertilization is semi-internal, meaning the male places the gametes inside the female's mantle cavity. Male gametes, which are formed in a single testis, fertilize the egg in a single ovary.

The "penis" in most male shellless cephalopods (Coleoidea) is the long and muscular end of the vas deferens, which carries spermatophores to a modified limb called the hectocotylus. Hectocotylus, in turn, transfers spermatophores to the female. In species without hectocotylus, the “penis” is long, can extend beyond the mantle cavity and transfer spermatophores directly to the female.

Many species of cephalopods lose their gonads during reproduction and therefore may reproduce once in their lifetime. Most of these mollusks die after reproduction. The only cephalopods capable of reproducing for several years in a row are female nautilus, which regenerate their gonads. Females of some species of cephalopods take care of their offspring.