Each person is born with a certain set of biological characteristics of his personality, manifested in temperament. Significant differences in people’s behavior, due to the properties of their temperaments, exist even among blood brothers and sisters, among twins living side by side. Temperaments differ among Siamese twins Masha and Dasha, all children who received the same upbringing, have the same worldview, similar ideals, beliefs and moral principles.

What is temperament? Temperament refers to the innate characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of his mental processes. It is temperament that determines a person’s reactions to external circumstances. It largely shapes a person’s character, his individuality and is a kind of connecting link between the body and cognitive processes.

Temperament is a manifestation of the type of nervous system in human activity, individual psychological characteristics of a person, in which the mobility of his nervous processes, strength, and balance are manifested.

Excitation and inhibition can be balanced or predominate over each other, can proceed with different strengths, move from center to center and replace each other in the same centers, i.e. have a certain mobility.

The term “temperament” itself was introduced by the ancient physician Claudius Galen and comes from the Latin word “temperans”, which means moderate. The word temperament itself can be translated as “the proper ratio of parts.” Hippocrates believed that the type of temperament is determined by the predominance of one of the fluids in the body. If blood predominates in the body, then the person will be mobile, that is, have a sanguine temperament, yellow bile will make the person impulsive and hot - choleric, black bile - sad and fearful, that is, melancholic, and the predominance of lymph will give the person calm and slowness, making him phlegmatic.

Many researchers, in particular V.S. Merlin, S.L. Rubinstein, believe that temperaments are very rare in their pure form; usually they are present in different proportions in each person. You should also not equate character and temperament. The latter only characterizes the type of nervous system, its properties, and is associated with the structure of the body and even metabolism. But it is in no way connected with the individual’s views, beliefs, tastes and does not determine the individual’s capabilities.

In the nerve centers of the human cerebral cortex, two opposing active processes occur in a complex interaction: excitation and inhibition. Excitation of some parts of the brain causes inhibition of others, this can explain why a person, carried away by something, ceases to perceive his surroundings. For example, switching attention is associated with a transition of excitation from one part of the brain to another and, accordingly, inhibition of abandoned parts of the brain.

In the psychology of individual differences, the following properties of temperament are distinguished: excitation - inhibition, lability - rigidity, mobility - inertia, activity - passivity, as well as balance, sensitivity, reaction speed.

The weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. When exposed to very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly go into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But a weak nervous system has great sensitivity: even to weak stimuli it gives an appropriate reaction.

An important property of higher nervous activity is the balance of nervous processes, that is, the proportional ratio of excitation and inhibition. For some people, these two processes are mutually balanced, while for others this balance is not observed: either the process of inhibition or excitation predominates. One of the main properties of higher nervous activity is the mobility of nervous processes. The mobility of the nervous system is characterized by the speed of alternation of processes of excitation and inhibition, the speed of their occurrence and cessation (when living conditions require it), the speed of movement of nervous processes (irradiation and concentration), the speed of the appearance of a nervous process in response to irritation, the speed of the formation of new conditioned connections. Combinations of these properties of nervous processes of excitation and inhibition were used as the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished.

Weak type . Representatives of a weak type of nervous system cannot withstand strong, prolonged and concentrated stimuli. The processes of inhibition and excitation are weak. When exposed to strong stimuli, the development of conditioned reflexes is delayed. Along with this, there is a high sensitivity (i.e., a low threshold) to the actions of stimuli.

Strong balanced type . Distinguished by a strong nervous system, it is characterized by an imbalance of the basic nervous processes - the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.

Strong balanced mobile type . The processes of inhibition and excitation are strong and balanced, but their speed, mobility, and rapid turnover of nervous processes lead to relative instability of nerve connections.

Strong balanced inert type . Strong and balanced nervous processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are always outwardly calm, even, and difficult to excite.

The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data; this is an innate property of the nervous system. On this physiological basis, various systems of conditioned connections can be formed, i.e., during the course of life, these conditioned connections will be formed differently in different people: this is where the type of higher nervous activity will manifest itself. Temperament is a manifestation of a type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.

The characteristics of a person’s mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person’s individual life, in the process of upbringing. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to a person’s behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the entire appearance of a person; it determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine either the behavior or actions of a person, or his beliefs, or moral principles.

Temperament types

In psychology, there are four types of temperament: Choleric, Melancholic, Phlegmatic and Sanguine. It cannot be said that Melancholic is better than Choleric, and Sanguine is better than Phlegmatic. Everyone has their pros and cons.

1. A melancholic person has a weak type of nervous system and, therefore, is not resistant to circumstances that require overcoming or strong stimulation of the nervous system. The remaining three types of nervous system are considered strong. A person is easily vulnerable, prone to constantly experiencing various events, he reacts little to external factors. He cannot restrain his asthenic experiences by force of will; he is highly impressionable and easily emotionally vulnerable. These traits are emotional weakness.

2. Phlegmatic temperament is a type of temperament that, although a strong type, is still characterized by low mobility of nervous processes. Once they have arisen in certain centers, they are distinguished by their constancy and strength. An inert nervous system corresponds to this type. Slow, calm, has stable aspirations and mood, outwardly stingy in the manifestation of emotions and feelings. He shows perseverance and perseverance in his work, remaining calm and balanced. He is productive at work, compensating for his slowness with diligence.

3. Sanguine temperament - another strong type of temperament - is characterized by the fact that its processes of excitation and inhibition are quite strong, balanced and easily mobile. A lively, hot-tempered, active person, with frequent changes of mood and impressions, with a quick reaction to all the events happening around him, quite easily coming to terms with his failures and troubles. He is very productive at work when he is interested, becoming very excited about it; if the work is not interesting, he is indifferent to it, he becomes bored.

4. Choleric temperament - the third strong type of temperament - unbalanced, uncontrollable, in it the processes of excitation prevail over weak inhibition. This type of nervous system quickly depletes and is prone to breakdowns. Fast, passionate, impetuous, but completely unbalanced, with sharply changing moods with emotional outbursts, quickly exhausted. He does not have a balance of nervous processes, this sharply distinguishes him from a sanguine person. A choleric person, getting carried away, carelessly wastes his strength and quickly becomes exhausted.

Good upbringing, control and self-control makes it possible for a melancholic person to manifest himself as an impressionable person with deep experiences and emotions; phlegmatic, as a self-possessed person without hasty decisions; a sanguine person, as a highly responsive person for any work; choleric, as a passionate, frantic and active person in work. Negative properties of temperament can manifest themselves: in a melancholic person - isolation and shyness; a phlegmatic person has indifference to people, dryness; for a sanguine person - superficiality, scatteredness, inconstancy. A person with any type of temperament can be capable or incapable, the type of temperament does not affect a person’s abilities, it’s just that some life tasks are easier to solve by a person of one type of temperament, others - by another. Temperament is one of the most significant personality traits. Interest in this problem arose more than two and a half thousand years ago. It was caused by the obvious existence of individual differences, which are determined by the peculiarities of the biological and physiological structure and development of the body, as well as by the characteristics of social development, the uniqueness of social ties and contacts. Biologically determined personality structures include, first of all, temperament. Temperament determines the presence of many mental differences between people, including the intensity and stability of emotions, emotional sensitivity, pace and energy of actions, as well as a number of other dynamic characteristics.

Despite the fact that repeated and constant attempts have been made to study the problem of temperament, this problem still belongs to the category of controversial and not fully resolved problems of modern psychological science. Today there are many approaches to the study of temperament. However, with all the existing diversity of approaches, most researchers recognize that temperament is the biological foundation on which personality is formed as a social being, and personality traits determined by temperament are the most stable and long-lasting. It is impossible to raise the question of which temperament is better. Each of them has its positive and negative sides. The passion, activity, energy of a choleric person, the mobility, liveliness and responsiveness of a sanguine person, the depth and stability of the feelings of a melancholic person, the calmness and lack of haste of a phlegmatic person - these are examples of those valuable personality traits, the possession of which is associated with individual temperaments. At the same time, with any of the temperaments there may be a danger of developing undesirable personality traits. For example, a choleric temperament can make a person unrestrained, abrupt, and prone to constant “explosions.” Sanguine temperament can lead to frivolity, a tendency to be scattered, and lack of depth and stability of feelings. With a melancholic temperament, a person may develop excessive isolation, a tendency to become completely immersed in his own experiences, and excessive shyness. A phlegmatic temperament can make a person lethargic, inert, and indifferent to all the impressions of life. Despite this, temperament is formed throughout the life of its owner, as well as his character.

In our opinion, temperament changes throughout life and depends on current circumstances. Let's say a person is...sanguine. Everything in his life is calm. People appear in his life who begin to interrogate him, accuse him, bring him to hysterics, to tears. If such treatment lasts longer than a month, then the person begins to cry more and becomes Melancholic. This Melancholic person begins to be constantly pulled and humiliated. This Melancholic becomes Choleric. It can already be compared to a nuclear bomb. He begins to explode and yells at everyone who laughs from the sidelines, who tells him something as a joke, but he doesn’t understand. It negatively affects others. But this rarely happens. Temperament is the pace or cycle of expression of emotions and qualities.

 – This is a set of congenital and acquired properties of the nervous system that determine the nature of the interaction of the body with the environment and are reflected in all functions of the body.

The type of higher nervous activity is based on the individual characteristics of its occurrence in two areas: and inhibition. According to the views of I.P. Pavlov, the main properties of nervous processes are three:

1) The strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition (related to the performance of nerve cells).

The strength of excitation processes characterized by: high performance; initiative; determination; courage; courage; persistence in overcoming life's difficulties; the ability to solve complex situations without disruption of nervous activity.

Strength of braking processes characterized by: self-control; patience; high ability to concentrate, to differentiate the permissible, possible from the unacceptable and impossible.

Weakness of nervous processes characterized by: low performance; increased fatigue; weak endurance; indecision in difficult situations, and the rapid onset of neurogenic breakdowns; the desire to avoid difficulties, obstacles, active work and tension; low initiative; lack of persistence.

2) (related to the ratio of excitation and inhibition processes in terms of their strength).

Balance of nervous processes characterized by: even attitude towards people; restraint; ability to self-control, concentration, expectation; the ability to fall asleep easily and quickly; smooth speech, with correct and expressive intonation.

Imbalance with a predominance of excitement characterized by: increased impressionability; nervousness, and in the strong type this is expressed in a tendency to scream, in the weak type - in withdrawal, in tearfulness; restless with frequent nightmare content; fast speech (patter).

3) Mobility of excitation and inhibition processes (associated with the ability of nervous processes to replace each other).

Mobility of nervous processes characterized by: a fairly easy and quick transition to a new business; rapid transformation of habits and skills; ease of falling asleep and waking up.

Inertness of nervous processes characterized by: difficulty transitioning to a new business and changing habits and skills; difficulty waking up; calm with dreams without nightmares; slow speech.

Based on every possible combination of the three basic properties of nervous processes, a wide variety is formed. According to the classification of I.P. Pavlov, there are four main types of GNI , differing in resistance to neurotic factors and adaptive properties.

1) Strong, unbalanced , ("unrestrained") type characterized by strong processes of excitation that prevail over inhibition. This is a passionate person; with a high level of activity; vigorous; hot-tempered; irritable; with strong, quickly arising, clearly reflected in speech, gestures, facial expressions.

2) Strong, balanced, agile (labile or living) type is different strong processes of excitation and inhibition, their balance and the ability to easily replace one process with another. He is a man of great self-control; decisive; overcoming difficulties; vigorous; able to quickly navigate a new environment; mobile; impressionable; with a bright expression and easy changeability.

3) Strong, balanced, inert (calm) type characterized strong processes of excitation and inhibition, their balance, but low mobility of nervous processes. This is a very efficient person; able to restrain himself; calm; slow; with weak expression of feelings; difficulty switching from one type of activity to another; does not like to change his habits.

4) Weak type is different weak excitation processes and easily occurring inhibitory reactions. This is a weak-willed man; sad; dreary; with high emotional vulnerability; suspicious; prone to dark thoughts; with a depressed mood; closed; timid; easily susceptible to other people's influence.

These types of higher nervous activity correspond to the temperaments described by Hippocrates:

Properties of nervous processes	Temperaments (according to Hippocrates)
		Sanguine	Phlegmatic person	Melancholic
Equilibrium	Unbalanced, with a predominance of the excitation process	Balanced	Balanced
Mobility		Mobile	Inert

However, in life such “pure” ones are rare; usually the combination of properties is more diverse. I.P. Pavlov also wrote that between these main types there are “intermediate, transitional types and they must be known in order to navigate human behavior.”

Along with the indicated types of GNI common to humans and animals, I.P. Pavlov specifically identified human types (particular types) based on the different ratio of the first and second signaling systems:

1. Art type characterized by a slight predominance of the first signaling system over the second. Representatives of this type are characterized by an objective, figurative perception of the surrounding world, operating in the process with sensory images.

2. Thinking type characterized by the predominance of the second signaling system over the first. This type is characterized by a pronounced ability to abstract from reality and to perform subtle analysis; operating with abstract symbols in the process of thinking.

3.Medium type characterized by the balance of signaling systems. Most people belong to this type; they are characterized by both figurative and speculative conclusions.

This classification reflects the nature of the functional interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain and the features of their interaction.

The doctrine of the types of higher nervous activity is important for understanding the patterns of formation of such important psychological characteristics of the individual as temperament and character. The type of GNI is the physiological basis of temperament. However, the type of GNI can be reduced to temperament, because the type of GNI is a physiological property of a person, and temperament is a psychological property of a person and is related to the dynamic side of a person’s mental activity. It should be remembered that temperament does not characterize the content side of a person (a person’s worldview, beliefs, views, interests, etc.). Features of the type of GNI and the prevailing temperament form the natural basis of the individual’s uniqueness.

The property of mobility of nervous processes, identified by I. P. Pavlov in 1932, later became, as noted by B. M. Teplov (1963a), assessed as more ambiguous. Therefore, he identified the following features of nervous activity that characterize speed of functioning of the nervous system:

1) the speed of occurrence of the nervous process;

2) the speed of movement of the nervous process (irradiation and concentration);

3) the speed of disappearance of the nervous process;

4) the speed of change from one nervous process to another;

5) the speed of formation of a conditioned reflex;

6) ease of alteration of the signal meaning of conditioned stimuli and stereotypes.

The study of the relationship between these manifestations of the speed of functioning of the nervous system, carried out in the laboratory of B. M. Teplov, made it possible to identify two main factors: the ease of altering the meaning of conditioned stimuli (positive to negative and vice versa) and the speed of the emergence and disappearance of nervous processes. For the first factor, B. M. Teplov left the name mobility, and the second one is designated as lability.

Other indicators of the speed of functioning of the nervous system do not currently relate to the two indicated properties. M. N. Borisova’s attempt to isolate the speed of irradiation and concentration of nervous processes as an independent property did not receive sufficiently compelling arguments. Also unsuccessful, as already mentioned, was V.D. Nebylitsyn’s attempt to isolate the speed of formation of conditioned reflexes into a separate property of dynamism.

Although remodeling is still used in a number of physiological studies as an indicator of the mobility of the nervous system, data obtained in recent decades have called it into question as a reference indicator of the property of mobility. It turned out that the alteration of conditioned reflexes is a rather complex phenomenon of higher nervous activity, which is determined not only by the ease of transition from excitation to inhibition and vice versa, but also by the strength of the formed conditioned connections (i.e., the speed of attenuation of traces), the intensity of the stimulus, the influence of the second signaling system and etc. (V.A. Troshikhin et al., 1978). And I.P. Pavlov himself regarded the alteration of conditioned stimuli as a very complex complex test, quite difficult to decipher.

Alteration is not associated with other indicators of mobility, in particular with indicators included in the lability group. But it reveals a dependence on the strength of the nervous system. In this regard, the physiological interpretation of “remodeling” as a property of the nervous system is very difficult. At least, it is obvious that it is not a simple analogue of the speed of nervous processes. Therefore, it is no coincidence that in the last two decades, indicators of the lability group, i.e., the speed of development and disappearance of nervous processes, have been studied more. This is also facilitated by the fact that “rework” requires a very long time, so it cannot be used during mass examinations.

Based on the fact that lability presupposes the speed of development of the nervous process and the speed of its disappearance, three methodological approaches have been outlined in the study of functional mobility (lability):

1) identifying the speed of occurrence of excitation and inhibition;

2) identifying the speed of disappearance of excitation and inhibition;

3) identification of the maximum frequency of generation of nerve impulses, depending on both the first and the second.

Studying speed of development of nervous processes significantly complicated by the fact that it depends, as mentioned in the previous paragraph, on the level of resting activation, i.e., on whether the subject’s nervous system is weak or strong. Of course, this does not exclude the influence on the rate of generation of excitation and other mechanisms that can directly characterize the proposed property of the nervous system. However, it is not yet possible to isolate them in a “pure” form. The situation is even worse when it comes to measuring the speed at which braking occurs. Now you can count on only one way - measuring the latent period of muscle relaxation using electromyography.

Functional mobility as the speed of disappearance of nervous processes. The nervous process does not disappear immediately after the action of a stimulus or the implementation of some action, but weakens gradually. The presence of traces prevents the normal development of the opposite nervous process. However, even after disappearing, the first process does not cease to influence the development of its opposite. The fact is that, according to the induction mechanism, it is replaced by a phase that facilitates its occurrence. For example, instead of the previously existing process of excitation, a process of inhibition occurs in these same centers. If, against this background, an inhibitory stimulus is applied, the resulting inhibition is added to the already existing inductive inhibition, and then the inhibitory effect intensifies. The time course of the changes taking place is presented in Fig. 5.6.

The aftereffect, which depends on the trace depolarization and circulation of nerve impulses through the network of neurons, has different durations in different people. For some, the positive and negative phases occur quickly, for others - slowly. Therefore, if different people are presented with the same tasks of bringing together positive and inhibitory stimuli or excitatory and inhibitory reactions, different time courses of the trace changes that occur are revealed, i.e., differences in the functional mobility of the nervous system.

Rice. 5.6. Diagram showing the phase development of trace processes. A – change in the magnitude of inhibitory reactions after preceding the excitation process; B – change in the magnitude of activating reactions after the precedence of inhibitory reactions. Columns the magnitude of the reactions is indicated, curved lines– change in time of nervous processes (t0–t5): trace excitation, a1 – disappearance of traces of excitation, a2–a4 – inhibition developing according to the mechanism of negative induction; b0 – trace inhibition, b1 – disappearance of trace inhibition, b2–b5 – excitation, developing according to the type of positive induction.

Since the duration of attenuation of traces of nervous processes may depend on their intensity (the more intense the process, the longer its attenuation will be), it is important to take into account the influence of this factor. In people with a weak nervous system, under the influence of the same stimulus, the excitation process develops more intensely (at least within the limits of weak and medium-intensity stimuli), but its attenuation will be longer than in people with a strong nervous system. It is no coincidence that in the psychophysiological laboratory of B. M. Teplov - V. D. Nebylitsyn, positive connections were identified between inertia and weakness of the nervous system. However, when leveling out differences in the level of rest activation using various methodological methods, it is possible to obtain an indicator of the speed of trace processes in their pure form. Thus, no correlation was found between the strength of the nervous system and the mobility of nervous processes when using the methods of K. M. Gurevich and E. P. Ilyin, which will be discussed below, to identify the aftereffect (see Appendix).

Methods that study functional mobility based on the speed of trace phenomena are most often based on the fact that after a positive signal that initiates an excitatory process, an inhibitory signal is presented that causes the opposite process or reaction. Conversely, after an inhibitory signal (or response), a positive signal is presented a short time later, causing an excitatory response. These techniques are very close to the technique called “collision” by I.P. Pavlov. However, they are not identical to the technique called “reworking” the signal meaning of stimuli, although in both cases there is an outwardly similar point: one nervous process (or reaction) must give way to another.

The difference between these two techniques, as noted by V. A. Troshikhin and his co-authors, is as follows. When there is a “collision,” the replacement of one nervous process by another is due to the sequential action two different signals or operations (for example, sound as a positive stimulus and light as a negative one). When “reworking”, the signal value of one and the same conditioned stimulus changes, remaining unchanged in its modality and physical parameters. When there is a “collision” there is a collision at the same moment in time two processes, in the “remake” - multi-temporal change of positive and inhibitory stimuli. “Reworking” is associated with the extinction of a strengthened conditioned reflex reaction and the development of a conditioned inhibitor to the same stimulus.

We all behave differently in difficult situations, work at different paces, and react to criticism. These differences are largely due to the type of nervous system. The type of nervous system can be strong or weak, inert or mobile, balanced and unbalanced.

The characteristics of the nervous system determine the known types of temperament: choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic.

According to I.P. Pavlov, the strength of the nervous system is an innate indicator. It is used to indicate the endurance and performance of nerve cells.

The strength of the nervous system “reflects the ability of nerve cells to withstand, without going into an inhibitory state, either very strong or prolonged, although not strong, excitation.”

A feedback relationship between the strength of the nervous system and sensitivity was established. Individuals with a strong nervous system are characterized by a low level of analyzer sensitivity. And a weaker nervous system is more sensitive, that is, it is able to respond to stimuli of lower intensity than a strong one.

Strong type of nervous system

A strong nervous system can withstand a greater load and duration than a weak one.

High efficiency. A person with a strong nervous system is characterized by high performance and low susceptibility to fatigue.

Multitasking. There is also the ability to remember and care about performing several types of tasks simultaneously for a long period of time, that is, to distribute one’s attention well.

Ability to take a hit. A distinctive property of a strong nervous system is the ability to tolerate extremely strong stimuli, remain calm and cool in stressful situations.
Emergency, control - such situations mobilize people with a strong nervous system.

Mobilization and safety margin. In situations of intense activity and increased responsibility, an improvement in performance efficiency is observed. Can work in noisy environments. They achieve their best results, as a rule, under conditions of increased motivation.

Routine is depressing. But in the conditions of ordinary, everyday activities, when performing monotonous work, they develop a state of boredom and efficiency decreases, so they achieve their best results, as a rule, in conditions of increased motivation.

Ignores weak signals. Sensitivity is determined by the minimum value of the stimulus that causes an excitation reaction. People with a strong nervous system require a stronger signal for this.

Weak type of nervous system

Fast fatiguability. A person with a weak nervous system is characterized by rapid fatigue, the need for additional breaks for rest, and a sharp decrease in work productivity against the background of distractions and interference.

Observed inability to distribute attention between several things at the same time.

Doesn't cope well with stress. In situations of intense activity, work efficiency decreases, anxiety and uncertainty arise. A weak nervous system is not able to tolerate super-strong stimuli. It either turns off immediately (the inhibitory process prevails over excitation), or it is “carried away” without any brakes, with unpredictable consequences (inhibition does not have time to cope with excitation).

Systematization and control. A weak nervous system is characterized by high resistance to monotony, therefore representatives of the weak type achieve better results in everyday, habitual activities. They work successfully according to the algorithm. There is the ability to plan activities, systematize, and carefully monitor the work done.

Increased sensitivity. A weak nervous system has the ability to respond to ultra-weak signals and distinguish between similar stimuli. It is precisely high sensitivity that determines that some people are able to notice the subtleties of shades, sounds, smells, as well as statements and interpersonal relationships.

By Paul Apal'kin

Other characteristics of the nervous system

Nervous system mobility

Mobility- this is a property of the nervous system, which manifests itself in the speed and ease of a person’s adaptation to new conditions, in the speed and ease of his transition from one state to another, from rest to activity and back. The mobility of nervous processes affects the speed of thinking, perception, and memorization.

Mobile type of nervous system

People with a mobile nervous system They tend to easily and quickly learn new material, but just as quickly forget it; they easily and quickly get used to new conditions, love the novelty of the situation and new acquaintances.

Inert type of nervous system

People with an inert nervous system They master new material slowly, but this mastery is more durable. They are difficult to master, they move more slowly from a state of rest to a state of activity, such people are often accused of being slow.

"Invasion" by Paul Apalkin

Balance of the nervous system

Equilibrium- this is a property of the nervous system, which manifests itself in the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition.

Unbalanced type of nervous system

Excitement predominates; it is easier for such people to show external activity than to restrain themselves; they quickly make decisions and take action, sometimes without even having time to think everything through.

Balanced type of nervous system

Inhibition predominates, which is expressed in patience, the ability to effectively suppress inappropriate impulses; excessive constraint of behavior is also possible.”

Individual style of activity

Developing an individual style of activity makes it possible to compensate for the peculiarities of manifestations of the mobile and inert nervous systems: inertia is compensated by foresight, and excessive mobility is compensated by special self-control measures aimed against haste.

Types of nervous system and temperament

Type of nervous system	Features of excitation and inhibition processes			Temperament
		Equilibrium	Mobility
Strong:
rampant		unbalanced	mobile
alive		balanced	mobile	sanguine
calm		balanced	inert	phlegmatic person
Weak		unbalanced	inert	melancholic

We all behave differently in difficult situations, work at different paces, and react to criticism. These differences are largely due to the type of nervous system. The type of nervous system can be strong or weak, inert or mobile, balanced and unbalanced. The characteristics of the nervous system determine the known types of temperament: choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic. According to I.P. Pavlov, the strength of the nervous system is […]

Our former compatriot, now living in Australia, summarizing Western literary data, gives a description of eight basic, from his point of view, personality types: infantile; authoritarian; Machiavellian; accumulative; adventurous; flexible; altruistic; creative (Zatsepin, 2002). Infantile Infantile personality type (psychopath) is characterized by social underdevelopment: dishonesty and lack of empathy. People of this type are quiet, polite, courteous, even charming, and at the same time […]

A. Miller (1991) created a typology based on a combination of personality traits. He used three dimensions of personality traits: cognitive, affective, and conative. Cognitive dimension - analyticity - holisticity (in other concepts it is analyticity - syntheticity), i.e. the tendency to focus on the whole or parts. The affective dimension is represented by emotional stability - instability, which is determined through the intensity of emotional reactions. […]

This American psychologist believed that early childhood and family relationships are the determining factors in the formation of personality. Therefore, the five personality types he identified (consumer, exploitative, accumulative, market and productive) rather reflect the influence of social rather than innate factors (E. Fromm, 1964). Consumer type A person believes that the source of all benefits is external, and is determined to […]

The ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. A measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active one, and vice versa, the opposite of mobility is the inertia of nervous processes.

According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, individual behavioral characteristics and the dynamics of mental activity depend on individual differences in the activity of the nervous system. The basis of individual differences in nervous activity is the manifestation and correlation of the properties of two main nervous processes - excitation and inhibition

Three properties of the processes of excitation and inhibition were established:

1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition,

2) balance of excitation and inhibition processes,

3) mobility (changeability) of the processes of excitation and inhibition.

The strength of nervous processes is expressed in the ability of nerve cells to tolerate long-term or short-term, but very concentrated excitation and inhibition. This determines the performance (endurance) of the nerve cell.

The weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. When exposed to very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly go into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But a weak nervous system has great sensitivity: even to weak stimuli it gives an appropriate reaction.

An important property of higher nervous activity is the balance of nervous processes, that is, the proportional ratio of excitation and inhibition. For some people, these two processes are mutually balanced, while for others this balance is not observed: either the process of inhibition or excitation predominates.

One of the main properties of higher nervous activity is the mobility of nervous processes. The mobility of the nervous system is characterized by the speed of alternation of processes of excitation and inhibition, the speed of their occurrence and cessation (when living conditions require it), the speed of movement of nervous processes (irradiation and concentration), the speed of appearance of the nervous process in response to irritation, the speed of formation of new conditioned connections, the development and changes in the dynamic stereotype.

Combinations of these properties of nervous processes of excitation and inhibition were used as the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished.

Weak type. Representatives of a weak type of nervous system cannot withstand strong, prolonged and concentrated stimuli. The processes of inhibition and excitation are weak. When exposed to strong stimuli, the development of conditioned reflexes is delayed. Along with this, there is a high sensitivity (i.e., a low threshold) to the actions of stimuli.

Strong balanced type. Distinguished by a strong nervous system, it is characterized by an imbalance of the basic nervous processes - the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.

Strong balanced mobile type. The processes of inhibition and excitation are strong and balanced, but their speed, mobility, and rapid turnover of nervous processes lead to relative instability of nerve connections.

Strong balanced inert type. Strong and balanced nervous processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are always outwardly calm, even, and difficult to excite.

The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data; this is an innate property of the nervous system. On this physiological basis, various systems of conditioned connections can be formed, i.e., during the course of life, these conditioned connections will be formed differently in different people: this is where the type of higher nervous activity will manifest itself. Temperament is a manifestation of a type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.

The characteristics of a person’s mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person’s individual life, in the process of upbringing. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to a person’s behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the entire appearance of a person - it determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine either the behavior or actions of a person, or his beliefs, or moral principles.

Choleric- an unbalanced, unrestrained, hot-tempered, even unbridled personality. Choleric temperament is characterized by great intensity and vivid expression of emotional experiences and the speed of their occurrence. A choleric person is characterized by quick temper and quick-wittedness, which immediately follows violent outbursts of feelings. A choleric person is a hot-tempered, passionate person, characterized by a sharp change in feelings, which are always deep for him and capture him completely. He experiences both joy and sorrow deeply and strongly, which finds its (sometimes violent) expression in his facial expressions and actions. Has difficulty performing monotonous work, reactions are fast and strong. He gets down to business with passion, but quickly cools down - a “don’t care” mood appears.

In communication he is impatient and harsh. Facial expressions and movements are energetic, the pace of work is fast. Often teenagers with such a temperament disrupt lessons, get into fights, and generally cause a lot of trouble for parents and teachers. These are perky, fighting, active guys. They become the ringleaders among their peers, involving them in various romantic ventures.

Melancholic- unbalanced, deeply worried about any event with a sluggish and weak external reaction. The reaction is slow. Peculiarities of melancholic temperament are manifested externally: facial expressions and movements are slow, monotonous, restrained, poor, the voice is quiet, inexpressive.

Sensitive, vulnerable, afraid of difficulties, characterized by increased anxiety. Avoids unexpected situations. Prefers to perform activities that do not require mental stress.

The feelings and moods of a melancholic person are monotonous and at the same time very stable.

Melancholic children cannot resist injustice, they often fall under the influence of others, they are teased and offended. These guys often find it difficult to work in a team. Melancholic teenagers are often timid and shy, they can easily cry.

Sanguine- a balanced personality, his reactions are distinguished by speed and moderate strength, but he is distinguished by a relatively weak intensity of mental processes and the rapid replacement of some mental processes by others. He quickly masters new professional knowledge and can work for a long time without getting tired, provided that the work is varied. A sanguine person is characterized by the ease and speed of the emergence of new emotional states, which, however, quickly replacing each other, do not leave a deep mark in his consciousness.

Usually a sanguine person is distinguished by rich facial expressions; his emotional experiences are accompanied by a variety of expressive movements. This is a cheerful person, distinguished by great mobility. The external mobility of a sanguine person is associated with the speed of mental processes: he is impressionable, quickly responds to external stimuli and is less focused and deep in his personal experiences.

A sanguine person can easily cope with tasks that require quick thinking, unless these tasks are particularly difficult and serious. He easily takes on different things, but at the same time easily forgets about them, becoming interested in new ones.

Phlegmatic people

Outwardly, a person of phlegmatic temperament is distinguished, first of all, by low mobility, his movements are very slow and even sluggish, not energetic, quick actions cannot be expected from him. Phlegmatic people are also characterized by weak emotional excitability. His feelings and moods are of an even character and change slowly. This is a calm person, measured in his actions. He rarely leaves an even, calm emotional state, he can rarely be seen very excited, and affective manifestations of personality are alien to him.

The facial expressions and gestures of a phlegmatic person are monotonous, inexpressive, speech is slow, devoid of liveliness, and is not accompanied by expressive movements.

Scientists give different definitions to concepts "extrovert" and "introvert". For the classification of K. Leonhard, priority was person's attitude to information, to the reaction to events in the external environment: extroverts are receptive to such information and react to it; Introverts, on the other hand, can largely ignore the external environment, focusing on their own inner world.

Due to the differences in approach, K. Leonhard makes the main conclusion that introvert - the personality is more strong-willed, strong, resistant to outside influence.Extroverts in this regard, they are less persistent - they are easily influenced by others and, unlike introverts, they can change their internal attitudes depending on the external environment.

Circle of friends introverts rather narrow, they are prone to philosophizing and soul-searching. Some of them oppose themselves to the environment, and therefore do not follow changing circumstances at all, falling behind the pace of life. As a rule, introverts categorically do not tolerate interference in their lives, in their attitudes and in their inner world. Such individuals are accustomed to following their principles and beliefs to the end. Extroverts adapt better to changing conditions, make acquaintances more easily and expand their social circle, and are open to new things, including new information. They are ready to sacrifice their beliefs for the sake of a certain goal and easily give in to other people. They are not prone to self-examination; some extroverts can even be accused of frivolity.

Mental self-regulation - This control of one’s psycho-emotional state, achieved by a person’s influence on himself with the help of words, mental images, control of muscle tone and breathing.

Character- this is the framework of the personality, which includes only the most pronounced and closely interconnected personality traits, clearly manifested in various types of activities. All character traits are personality traits, but not all personality traits are character traits. Character- an individual combination of the most stable, significant personality traits, manifested in human behavior, in a certain respect: 1) to yourself(degree of demandingness, criticality, self-esteem); 2) to other people(individualism or collectivism, selfishness or altruism, cruelty or kindness, indifference or sensitivity, rudeness or politeness, deceit or truthfulness, etc.); 3) to the assigned task(laziness or hard work, neatness or sloppiness, initiative or passivity, perseverance or impatience, responsibility or irresponsibility, organization, etc.); 4) reflected in character strong-willed qualities: willingness to overcome obstacles, mental and physical pain, degree of perseverance, independence, determination, discipline. Character human is a fusion of innate properties of higher nervous activity with individual traits acquired during life. Individual character traits depend on each other, are connected with each other and form an integral organization, which is called character structure. In the structure of character, two groups of traits are distinguished. Under character trait understand certain features of a person’s personality that are systematically manifested in various types of his activities and by which one can judge his possible actions in certain conditions. TO first group include traits that express the orientation of the individual (stable needs, attitudes, interests, inclinations, ideals, goals), a system of relationships to the surrounding reality and represent individually unique ways of implementing these relationships. To the second group include intellectual, volitional and emotional character traits.

Accentuation of character and personality– this is an excessive expression of certain character traits, this is an extreme version of the norm bordering on psychopathy.

Character accents: 1. Hyperthymic type. He is in high spirits, optimistic, extremely sociable, and quickly switches from one thing to another. Doesn't finish what he starts, is not disciplined, is prone to immoral acts, is not obligatory, and has inflated self-esteem. Conflict-prone, often initiates conflicts. 2.Dysthymic type - opposite to the hyperthymic type. He is characterized by a pessimistic mood, is non-communicative, prefers loneliness, leads a secluded lifestyle, and is prone to low self-esteem. Rarely comes into conflict with others. Highly values ​​friendship and justice. 3.Cycloid type . Characterized by fairly frequent periodic mood swings. During periods of high mood, behavior is hyperthymic, and during periods of low mood, it is dysthymic. Self-esteem is unstable. Conflictful, especially during periods of high mood. Unpredictable in conflict. 4. Excitable type . Differs in low contact in communication. Boring, gloomy, prone to rudeness and abuse. Unfriendly in a team, domineering in the family. In an emotionally calm state, he is conscientious and careful. In a state of emotional excitement, he is quick-tempered and has poor control over his behavior. He is conflict-provoking, often initiates conflicts, and is active in conflicts. 5. Stuck type . He is moderately sociable, boring, prone to moralizing, and often takes the position of a “parent.” Strives for high performance in any business, places increased demands on himself, and is sensitive to social justice. Touchy, vulnerable, suspicious, vindictive, jealous. Self-esteem is inadequate. He is conflict-prone, usually initiates conflicts, and is active in conflicts. 6. Pedantic type . He is distinguished by conscientiousness, accuracy, and seriousness in business. In official relations, he is a bureaucrat, a formalist, and easily cedes leadership to others. Rarely enters into conflicts. However, its formalism can provoke conflict situations. In conflict he behaves passively. 7. Anxious type. He is characterized by low contact, lack of self-confidence, and a minor mood. Self-esteem is low. At the same time, he is characterized by such traits as friendliness, self-criticism, and diligence. Rarely enters into conflicts, playing a passive role in them; the predominant strategies of behavior in conflict are withdrawal and concession. 8. Emotive type. Characterized by a desire to communicate in a narrow circle. Establishes good contacts only with a small selected circle of people. Overly sensitive. Tearful. At the same time, he is characterized by kindness, compassion, a heightened sense of duty, and diligence. Rarely enters into conflicts. In conflicts, he plays a passive role and is prone to concessions. 9. Demonstrative type. Characterized by ease of establishing contacts, desire for leadership, thirst for power and fame. Prone to intrigue. Courteous, artistic. At the same time, people of this type are selfish, hypocritical, and boastful. Conflicted. Active in conflict. 10. Exalted type ( from lat. exaltatio - an enthusiastic, excited state, painful liveliness). Characterized by high contact. Talkative, amorous. Attached and attentive to friends and relatives, susceptible to momentary moods. They sincerely worry about other people's problems.

Mechanisms of development and character formation

Character usually means the totality of some outstanding mental properties of an individual person. This refers to those mental properties that are formed after the birth of a person. Temperament, for example, has physiological and genetic roots, and therefore does not relate to character, because it is largely formed before birth. He, in turn, can either promote or hinder the development of certain character traits

Character is formed in the process of personality development and its social relations.

Character traits are formed at three levels:

physiological - based on temperament,

social - under the influence of society

at the level of consciousness - self-formation of character.

The main condition for the development and formation of a person’s character is, of course, the social environment. In simple words, all those people who surround a person in the process of growing up and beyond. There is no need to talk about clear boundaries of this process, because character is “filled” with various traits throughout life.

It is worth noting that the formation of a person’s character is characterized by a number of certain conditions and features at different age stages.

Periods of character formation

Although character begins to form from the first months, nevertheless, a special Sensitive period of life is distinguished. This period occurs approximately from the ages of 2-3 to 9-10 years, when children actively and extensively communicate both with the adults around them and with peers, readily accept them, imitating everyone and in everything. During this period, they are open to almost any outside influence. Children readily accept any new experience, imitating everyone and in everything. At this time, adults still enjoy the child’s boundless trust, so they have the opportunity to influence him with word, deed and action.

For the development of a child’s character, the communication style of the people around him is important:

Adults with adults

Adults with children

Children with children.

The style of communication of adults with each other in front of a child, the way of communicating with him himself is very important for the development of character.

The child adopts the communication style and tries to adapt to it, which in turn also affects the development of character. It is generally accepted that the way a mother and father act towards a child many years later becomes the way he treats his children when the child becomes an adult and starts his own family. However, this is both true and not true. The child not only adopts communication styles, he criticizes them in his own way. The older the child is and the more developed his intellect and the more willingly he uses the capabilities of his mind, the more critical he is. That is why a person’s attitude to truth is always included in the core of character. The inquisitiveness of a child’s mind cannot but leave an imprint on the formation of his character.

Some of the first traits in a person’s character are:

Kindness-selfishness,

Sociability-isolation

Responsiveness-indifference.

Research shows that these character traits begin to form long before the beginning of the school period of life, even in infancy.

Later, other character traits are formed:

Hard work is laziness,

Neatness-inaccuracy,

Good faith-maliciousness,

Responsibility-irresponsibility,

Persistence is cowardice.

These qualities, however, also begin to form in preschool childhood. They are formed and consolidated in games and available types of household work and other everyday activities.

Stimulation from adults is of great importance on the development of character traits. Both low and very high demands can have a detrimental effect on the formation of character.

In the preschool period, mainly those traits that are constantly supported are preserved and consolidated.

In the elementary grades of school, character traits that manifest themselves in relationships with people are developed. This is facilitated by the expansion of the child’s sphere of communication with others due to many new school friends and adults - teachers. If what a child as an individual acquired at home receives support at school, then the corresponding character traits are reinforced and most often remain throughout his entire life. If the newly acquired experience of communicating with peers, teachers, and other adults does not confirm as correct the characteristic forms of behavior that the child acquired at home, then a gradual breakdown of character begins, which is usually accompanied by pronounced internal and external conflicts. The restructuring of character that occurs does not always lead to a positive result. Most often, there is a partial change in character traits and a compromise between what the child was taught at home and what the school requires of him.

At school, the child begins to live a full social life, communicate with a large number of people, including those he knows little. The child’s responsibility for the results of their activities increases. They begin to compare him with other children. Therefore, it is in elementary school that such an important character trait as self-attitude is formed. School success can build confidence in one's own intellectual worth. Failures can form a kind of “loser complex”: the child stops trying because he is still a “loser”.

During adolescence, strong-willed character traits actively develop. In early adolescence, the basic moral and ideological foundations of the personality are finally formed, which most people carry through the rest of their lives. By the end of school, the character is finally formed. Further, the character is formed and transformed throughout life, but not so much that it becomes unrecognizable. Now a person becomes the creator of his character as a result of self-education.

Types of improper upbringing and character types with pathologies

The social environment, of course, is a very important condition for the formation of character. But no less important is education. The role of upbringing in the formation of character cannot be ruled out, since improper upbringing can cause certain pathologies in character. Education can be classified as purposeful or spontaneous.

According to the goals, education can be divided into three types:

education for the teacher,

education for society

education for the educated.

Parenting for the caregiver is aimed at developing traits that make parenting easier, such as obedience.

The task of education for society is the formation of socially significant traits (for example, law-abiding); Education for the person being educated poses the task of forming such character traits that are beneficial for the person himself and are capable of harmonizing his existence.

Capabilities– individual psychological characteristics of a person, manifested in activity and being a condition for its success. From the level of development abilities depend on the speed, ease and strength of the process of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, but they themselves capabilities are not limited to knowledge, skills and abilities.

General abilities are called of a person, which to one degree or another are manifested in all types of his activities. These are learning abilities, a person’s general mental abilities, and his ability to work. They are based on the general skills necessary in each area of ​​activity, in particular such as the ability to understand tasks, plan and organize their execution, using the means available in a person’s experience, to reveal the connections of those things to which the activity relates, to master new work techniques, to overcome difficulties on the way to the goal.

Under special understanding of abilities, which are clearly manifested in individual, special areas of activity (for example, stage, music, sports, etc.).

The division of general and special abilities is conditional. Actually, we are talking about general and special aspects of human abilities that exist in interconnection. General abilities are manifested in special ones, that is, in abilities for some specific, specific activity. With the development of special abilities, their general aspects also develop.

GIFTEDNESS- the presence of a person with favorable inclinations and abilities for any one or more types of activity. About giftedness a person can be judged by the nature of the development of abilities and mastery of knowledge, skills, abilities, by success and level of achievements in professional work.

The basis of any abilities are inclinations. Inclinations are understood as primary, natural (biological) characteristics with which a person is born and which mature in the process of his development. These are mainly innate anatomical and physiological features of the structure of the body, motor system, sensory organs, neurodynamic properties of the brain, features of functional asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres, etc. It is the originality of individual characteristics that acts as natural inclinations. Inclinations do not contain abilities and do not guarantee their development. They may or may not turn into abilities, depending on the person’s upbringing and activities. In the absence of proper upbringing and activity, even large inclinations will not become abilities, but with appropriate upbringing and activity, even small inclinations can develop abilities of a sufficiently high level.

B. M. Teplov points out some conditions for the formation of abilities. Abilities themselves cannot be innate. Only inclinations can be innate. Teplov understood his inclinations as certain anatomical and physiological features. Inclinations underlie the development of abilities, and abilities are the result of development. If the ability itself is not innate, therefore, it is formed in postnatal ontogenesis (it is important to pay attention to the fact that Teplov separates the terms “innate” and “hereditary”; “innate” - manifested from the moment of birth and formed under the influence of both hereditary and and environmental factors, “hereditary” - formed under the influence of hereditary factors and manifested both immediately after birth and at any other time in a person’s life). Abilities are formed through activity. Teplov writes that “...an ability cannot arise outside of the corresponding specific objective activity.” Thus, ability includes what arises in the activity corresponding to it. It also influences the success of this activity. Ability begins to exist only together with activity. It cannot appear before the activity corresponding to it has begun. Moreover, abilities are not only manifested in activities. They are created in it.

In psychology, there are three concepts of abilities:

A) the theory of heredity of abilities,

B) theory of acquired abilities,

C) acquired and natural in abilities.

1. The theory of heredity of abilities dates back to Plato, who argued that abilities have a biological origin, i.e. their manifestation depends entirely on who the child’s parent was, on what traits are inherited. Training and education can only change the speed of their appearance, but they will always manifest themselves in one way or another. www.pclever.ru

The approach to the hereditary nature of abilities is reflected in views linking a person’s abilities with the size of his brain. But these studies were not confirmed.

2. The theory of acquired abilities connects abilities exclusively with environment and upbringing. Back in the 18th century. K.A. Helvetius stated that with the help of special education genius can be formed. Supporters of this trend refer to cases where children from the most backward and primitive tribes, having received appropriate training, were no different from educated Europeans.

Examples are also given of cases where a child, for some reason, is deprived of the opportunity to communicate with adults and peers. As a result, a person in the full sense of the word does not emerge from him.

The American scientist W. Ashby argues that abilities and even genius are determined by acquired properties, and in particular by what pre-program and program of intellectual activity was formed in a person in childhood and in subsequent life, spontaneously and consciously during the learning process. For one, the program allows solving creative problems, while for the other - only reproductive ones. W. Ashby considers efficiency to be the second factor of ability.

But this concept has also met and continues to meet objections. Life observations and special studies indicate that the natural prerequisites for abilities cannot be denied. In a number of professions they are especially important.

3. Acquired and natural in abilities. This concept, which combines the above theories, is confirmed by practice and special research.

Researchers divide abilities into natural and acquired. This division is very conditional. Heredity is included, of course, as one of the conditions in the development of a person, but his abilities are not a direct function of his heredity. First of all, the hereditary and acquired in specific personality characteristics form an inseparable unity; Because of this alone, it is impossible to attribute any specific mental properties of a person to heredity alone.

Feel - this is the simplest mental cognitive process of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, as well as internal states of the body, arising from their direct impact on the senses.

Types and classification of sensations. According to the five sense organs known to the ancient Greeks, the following types of sensations are distinguished: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile (tactile). In addition, there are intermediate sensations between tactile and auditory - vibration. There are also complex sensations, consisting of several independent analytical systems: for example, touch is tactile and muscle-articular sensations; skin sensations include tactile, temperature and pain. There are organic sensations (hunger, thirst, nausea, etc.), static, sensations of balance, reflecting the position of the body in space.

There are various bases for classifying sensations.
The most ancient classification of sensations includes five points (according to the number of sense organs):
- sense of smell,
- taste,
- touch,
- vision
- hearing.
B.G. Ananyev identified eleven types of sensations.
The English physiologist C. Sherrington proposed a systematic classification of sensations. At the first level, sensations are divided into three main types:
- interoceptive,
- proprioceptive,
- exteroceptive.
Interoceptive combine signals that reach us from the internal environment of the body. Proprioceptive transmit information about the position in space of the body in general and the musculoskeletal system in particular. Exteroceptives provide signals from the outside world.

Interoceptive sensations

They signal the state of the internal processes of the body. They arise thanks to receptors located:
- on the walls of the stomach, intestines, heart, blood vessels and other organs,
- inside muscles and other organs.
As it turns out, this is the most ancient and most elementary group of sensations. Receptors that perceive information about the state of internal organs are called internal receptors. Interoceptive sensations are among the least conscious and most diffuse forms of sensations. Typically, they always retain their proximity to emotional states in consciousness.
Interoceptive sensations are also often called organic.

Proprioceptive sensations

They transmit signals about the position of the body in space, thereby forming the afferent basis of human movements, playing a decisive role in their regulation. Proprioceptive sensations include:
- a sense of balance (static sensation),
- motor (kinesthetic) sensation.
Receptors for proprioceptive sensitivity are located in muscles and joints (tendons, ligaments). These receptors are called Paccini bodies.
The role of proprioceptors has been well studied in physiology and psychophysiology. Their role as the afferent basis of movements in animals and humans was studied in detail in the works of A.A. Orbeli, P.K. Anokhina, N.A. Bernstein.
Peripheral receptors for the sensation of balance are located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear.

Exteroceptive sensations

They bring information from the outside world to human consciousness. Exteroceptive sensations are divided into:
- contact (taste and touch),
- distant (hearing, vision and smell).
The sense of smell, according to many authors, occupies an intermediate position between contact and distant sensations. Formally, olfactory sensations arise at a distance from the object, but the smell itself is a kind of object (we can say that it is a cloud of gas). And then it turns out that the nose is in direct contact with this object. You can also notice that the object itself has already ceased to exist, but the smell from it remains (for example, a tree burned, but the smoke from it remains). The sense of smell also plays a huge role in the perception of the quality of the product consumed.

Intermodal sensations

There are sensations that cannot be associated with any specific modality. Such sensations are called intermodal. These include vibration sensitivity, which integrates tactile-motor and auditory sensations. L.E. Komendantov believes that tactile-vibration sensitivity is one of the forms of sound perception. Tactile perception of sound vibration is understood as diffuse sound sensitivity. In the lives of deaf and deaf-blind people, vibration sensitivity plays a huge role. Deaf-blind people, thanks to the high development of vibration sensitivity, learned about the approach of a truck and other types of transport at a great distance.