Ionizing radiation- is any radiation that causes ionization of the medium , those. the flow of electrical currents in this environment, including in the human body, which often leads to cell destruction, changes in blood composition, burns and other serious consequences.

Sources of ionizing radiation

Sources of ionizing radiation are radioactive elements and their isotopes, nuclear reactors, charged particle accelerators, etc. X-ray installations and high-voltage direct current sources are sources of X-ray radiation. It should be noted here that during normal operation, the radiation hazard is insignificant. It occurs when an emergency occurs and can manifest itself for a long time in the event of radioactive contamination of the area.

The population receives a significant portion of exposure from natural sources of radiation: from space and from radioactive substances located in the earth’s crust. The most significant of this group is the radioactive gas radon, which occurs in almost all soils and is constantly released to the surface, and most importantly, penetrating into industrial and residential premises. It hardly shows itself, as it is odorless and colorless, which makes it difficult to detect.

Ionizing radiation is divided into two types: electromagnetic (gamma radiation and x-rays) and corpuscular, which is a- and beta-particles, neutrons, etc.

Types of ionizing radiation

Ionizing radiation is called radiation, the interaction of which with the environment leads to the formation of ions of different signs. Sources of these radiations are widely used in nuclear energy, technology, chemistry, medicine, agriculture, etc. Working with radioactive substances and sources of ionizing radiation poses a potential threat to the health and life of people who are involved in their use.

There are two types of ionizing radiation:

1) corpuscular (α- and β-radiation, neutron radiation);

2) electromagnetic (γ-radiation and x-rays).

Alpha radiation is a stream of nuclei of helium atoms emitted by a substance during the radioactive decay of a substance or during nuclear reactions. The significant mass of α-particles limits their speed and increases the number of collisions in matter, therefore α-particles have a high ionizing ability and low penetrating ability. The range of α-particles in air reaches 8÷9 cm, and in living tissue - several tens of micrometers. This radiation is not dangerous as long as the radioactive substances emitting a- particles will not enter the body through a wound, with food or inhaled air; then they become extremely dangerous.

Beta radiation is a flow of electrons or positrons resulting from the radioactive decay of nuclei. Compared to α particles, β particles have significantly less mass and less charge, so β ​​particles have higher penetrating power than α particles and lower ionizing power. The range of β-particles in air is 18 m, in living tissue - 2.5 cm.

Neutron radiation is a stream of nuclear particles that have no charge, emitted from the nuclei of atoms during certain nuclear reactions, in particular during the fission of uranium and plutonium nuclei. Depending on the energy there are slow neutrons(with energy less than 1 kEV), intermediate energy neutrons(from 1 to 500 kEV) and fast neutrons(from 500 keV to 20 MeV). During the inelastic interaction of neutrons with the nuclei of atoms in the medium, secondary radiation appears, consisting of both charged particles and γ-quanta. The penetrating ability of neutrons depends on their energy, but it is significantly higher than that of α-particles or β-particles. For fast neutrons, the path length in air is up to 120 m, and in biological tissue - 10 cm.

Gamma radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted during nuclear transformations or particle interactions (10 20 ÷10 22 Hz). Gamma radiation has a low ionizing effect, but high penetrating power and travels at the speed of light. It passes freely through the human body and other materials. This radiation can only be blocked by a thick lead or concrete slab.

X-ray radiation also represents electromagnetic radiation that occurs when fast electrons in matter decelerate (10 17 ÷ 10 20 Hz).

Concept of nuclides and radionuclides

The nuclei of all isotopes of chemical elements form a group of “nuclides”. Most nuclides are unstable, i.e. they are constantly turning into other nuclides. For example, a uranium-238 atom occasionally emits two protons and two neutrons (a particles). Uranium turns into thorium-234, but thorium is also unstable. Ultimately, this chain of transformations ends with a stable lead nuclide.

The spontaneous decay of an unstable nuclide is called radioactive decay, and such a nuclide itself is called a radionuclide.

With each decay, energy is released, which is transmitted further in the form of radiation. Therefore, we can say that to a certain extent, the emission of a particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons by a nucleus is a-radiation, the emission of an electron is β-radiation, and, in some cases, g-radiation occurs.

The formation and dispersion of radionuclides leads to radioactive contamination of air, soil, and water, which requires constant monitoring of their content and the adoption of neutralization measures.

Ionizing radiation is a special type of radiant energy that excites the ionization process in the irradiated medium. Sources of ionizing radiation are X-ray tubes, powerful high-voltage and accelerator installations, but mainly radioactive substances - natural (uranium, thorium, radium) and artificial (isotopes).

Radioactivity is a spontaneous process of decay of atomic nuclei, as a result of which radiation arises - electromagnetic and corpuscular.

The main types of work related to sources of ionizing radiation: gamma flaw detection of metals and products, work on X-ray machines in medical institutions and technical laboratories, the use of isotopes to control production processes, the operation of industrial and scientific high-power high-voltage and accelerator installations, the use of nuclear reactors , the use of radioactive substances and radiation in medical institutions for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, mining of radioactive ores.

When working with radioactive substances, in addition to external irradiation, radioactive elements may enter the body through the lungs (inhalation of radioactive dust or gases) and through the gastrointestinal tract. Some substances can penetrate the skin.

Radioactive substances retained in the body are carried by the blood to various tissues and organs, becoming a source of internal radiation in the latter. The rate of removal of radioactive substances from the body varies; highly soluble substances are released faster. Long-lived isotopes are especially dangerous, since once they enter the body, they can be a source of ionizing radiation throughout the life of the victim.

Types of radiation

When the nuclei of radioactive substances decay, they emit 4 types of radiation: a-, b-, y-rays and neutrons.

a-rays are a stream of positively charged particles with large mass (nuclei of helium atoms). External irradiation with α-particles is of little danger, since they penetrate shallowly into tissues and are absorbed by the stratum corneum of the skin epithelium. The entry of a-emitters into the body poses a great danger, since the cells are directly irradiated with high-power energy.

B-rays are a stream of particles with a negative charge (electrons). B-rays have greater penetrating power than a-rays; their range in air, depending on energy, ranges from fractions of a centimeter to 10-15 m, in water, in tissues - from fractions of a millimeter to 1 cm.

Y-rays are high-frequency electromagnetic radiation. Their properties are similar to X-rays, but have a shorter wavelength.

The energy of y-rays varies widely. Depending on the energy, y-rays are conventionally divided into soft (0.1-0.2 MeV), medium hard (0.2-1 MeV), hard (1-10 MeV) and super hard (over 10 MeV).

This type of radiation is the most penetrating and the most dangerous when exposed to external radiation.

Neutrons are particles that have no charge. They have great penetrating power. Under the influence of neutron irradiation, elements that make up tissues (such as phosphorus, etc.) can become radioactive.

Biological effect

Ionizing radiation causes complex functional and morphological changes in tissues and organs. Under its influence, water molecules that make up tissues and organs disintegrate with the formation of free atoms and radicals, which have a high oxidizing capacity. The products of water radiolysis act on the active sulfhydryl groups (SH) of protein structures and convert them into inactive ones - bisulfide ones. As a result, the activity of various enzyme systems responsible for synthetic processes is disrupted, and the latter are suppressed and distorted. Ionizing radiation also acts directly on protein and lipid molecules, having a denaturing effect. Ionizing radiation can cause local (burns) and general (radiation sickness) damage in the body.

Maximum permissible dose

The maximum permissible dose (MAD) of radiation for the whole body (when working directly with sources of ionizing radiation) is set at 0.05 J/kg (5 rem) for one year. In some cases, it is allowed to receive a dose of up to 0.03 J/kg, or 3 rem, within one quarter (while maintaining the total radiation dose throughout the year at 0.05 J/kg, or 5 rem). This dose increase is not allowed for women under 30 years of age (for them, the maximum radiation dose during the quarter is 0.013 J/kg, or 1.3 rem).

Ionizing radiation (IR) - flows of elementary particles (electrons, positrons, protons, neutrons) and quanta of electromagnetic energy, the passage of which through a substance leads to ionization (formation of oppositely polar ions) and excitation of its atoms and molecules. Ionization - the transformation of neutral atoms or molecules into electrically charged particles - ions. bII reach the Earth in the form of cosmic rays, arise as a result of the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei (απ β-particles, γ- and X-rays), are created artificially at accelerators of charged particles. Of practical interest are the most common types of IR - fluxes of a- and β-particles, γ-radiation, X-rays and neutron fluxes.

Alpha radiation(a) – flow of positively charged particles – helium nuclei. Currently, more than 120 artificial and natural alpha radioactive nuclei are known, which, when emitting an alpha particle, lose 2 protons and 2 neutrons. The speed of particles during decay is 20 thousand km/s. At the same time, α-particles have the lowest penetrating ability; their path length (the distance from the source to absorption) in the body is 0.05 mm, in air - 8–10 cm. They cannot even pass through a sheet of paper, but the ionization density per unit The range is very large (by 1 cm up to tens of thousands of pairs), so these particles have the greatest ionizing ability and are dangerous inside the body.

Beta radiation(β) – flow of negatively charged particles. Currently, about 900 beta radioactive isotopes are known. The mass of β-particles is several tens of thousands of times less than α-particles, but they have greater penetrating power. Their speed is 200–300 thousand km/s. The path length of the flow from the source in air is 1800 cm, in human tissue – 2.5 cm. β-particles are completely retained by solid materials (3.5 mm aluminum plate, organic glass); their ionizing ability is 1000 times less than that of α particles.

Gamma radiation(γ) – electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 1 · 10 -7 m to 1 · 10 -14 m; emitted when fast electrons in a substance decelerate. It occurs during the decay of most radioactive substances and has great penetrating power; travels at the speed of light. In electric and magnetic fields, γ-rays are not deflected. This radiation has a lower ionizing ability than a- and beta-radiation, since the ionization density per unit length is very low.

X-ray radiation can be obtained in special X-ray tubes, in electron accelerators, during the deceleration of fast electrons in matter and during the transition of electrons from the outer electron shells of an atom to the inner ones, when ions are created. X-rays, like γ-radiation, have a low ionizing ability, but a large penetration depth.

Neutrons - elementary particles of the atomic nucleus, their mass is 4 times less than the mass of α-particles. Their life time is about 16 minutes. Neutrons have no electrical charge. The path length of slow neutrons in air is about 15 m, in a biological environment - 3 cm; for fast neutrons - 120 m and 10 cm, respectively. The latter have high penetrating ability and pose the greatest danger.

There are two types of ionizing radiation:

Corpuscular, consisting of particles with a rest mass different from zero (α-, β– and neutron radiation);

Electromagnetic (γ- and X-ray radiation) - with a very short wavelength.

To assess the impact of ionizing radiation on any substances and living organisms, special quantities are used - radiation doses. The main characteristic of the interaction of ionizing radiation and the environment is the ionization effect. In the initial period of development of radiation dosimetry, it was most often necessary to deal with X-ray radiation propagating in the air. Therefore, the degree of ionization of the air in X-ray tubes or devices was used as a quantitative measure of the radiation field. A quantitative measure based on the amount of ionization of dry air at normal atmospheric pressure, which is quite easy to measure, is called exposure dose.

Exposure dose determines the ionizing ability of X-rays and γ-rays and expresses the radiation energy converted into the kinetic energy of charged particles per unit mass of atmospheric air. Exposure dose is the ratio of the total charge of all ions of the same sign in an elementary volume of air to the mass of air in this volume. The SI unit of exposure dose is the coulomb divided by kilogram (C/kg). The non-systemic unit is the roentgen (R). 1 C/kg = 3880 R. When expanding the range of known types of ionizing radiation and the areas of its application, it turned out that the measure of the impact of ionizing radiation on a substance cannot be easily determined due to the complexity and diversity of the processes occurring in this case. The most important of them, giving rise to physical and chemical changes in the irradiated substance and leading to a certain radiation effect, is the absorption of the energy of ionizing radiation by the substance. As a result, the concept of absorbed dose arose.

Absorbed dose shows how much radiation energy is absorbed per unit mass of any irradiated substance, and is determined by the ratio of the absorbed energy of ionizing radiation to the mass of the substance. The unit of measurement of absorbed dose in the SI system is the gray (Gy). 1 Gy is the dose at which 1 J of ionizing radiation energy is transferred to a mass of 1 kg. The extrasystemic unit of absorbed dose is the rad. 1 Gy = 100 rad. The study of individual consequences of irradiation of living tissues has shown that, with the same absorbed doses, different types of radiation produce different biological effects on the body. This is due to the fact that a heavier particle (for example, a proton) produces more ions per unit path in the tissue than a lighter particle (for example, an electron). For the same absorbed dose, the higher the radiobiological destructive effect, the denser the ionization created by the radiation. To take this effect into account, the concept of equivalent dose was introduced.

Equivalent dose is calculated by multiplying the value of the absorbed dose by a special coefficient - the coefficient of relative biological effectiveness (RBE) or quality coefficient. The coefficient values ​​for various types of radiation are given in table. 7.

Table 7

Relative biological effectiveness coefficient for various types of radiation

The SI unit of dose equivalent is the sievert (Sv). The value of 1 Sv is equal to the equivalent dose of any type of radiation absorbed in 1 kg of biological tissue and creating the same biological effect as the absorbed dose of 1 Gy of photon radiation. The non-systemic unit of measurement of equivalent dose is the rem (biological equivalent of rad). 1 Sv = 100 rem. Some human organs and tissues are more sensitive to the effects of radiation than others: for example, at the same equivalent dose, cancer is more likely to occur in the lungs than in the thyroid gland, and irradiation of the gonads is especially dangerous due to the risk of genetic damage. Therefore, radiation doses to different organs and tissues should be taken into account with different coefficients, which is called the radiation risk coefficient. Multiplying the equivalent dose value by the corresponding radiation risk coefficient and summing over all tissues and organs, we obtain effective dose, reflecting the total effect on the body. Weighted coefficients are established empirically and calculated in such a way that their sum for the entire organism is unity. The effective dose units are the same as the equivalent dose units. It is also measured in sieverts or rem.

Ionizing radiation refers to those types of radiant energy that, when entering or penetrating certain environments, produce ionization in them. Radioactive radiation, high-energy radiation, X-rays, etc. have these properties.

The widespread use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes, various accelerator installations and X-ray machines for various purposes has determined the prevalence of ionizing radiation in the national economy and the huge, ever-increasing contingents of people working in this area.

Types of ionizing radiation and their properties

The most diverse types of ionizing radiation are the so-called radioactive radiation, which is formed as a result of the spontaneous radioactive decay of atomic nuclei of elements with a change in the physical and chemical properties of the latter. Elements that have the ability to decay radioactively are called radioactive; they can be natural, such as uranium, radium, thorium, etc. (about 50 elements in total), and artificial, for which radioactive properties are obtained artificially (more than 700 elements).

During radioactive decay, there are three main types of ionizing radiation: alpha, beta and gamma.

An alpha particle is a positively charged helium ion formed during the decay of nuclei, usually of heavy natural elements (radium, thorium, etc.). These rays do not penetrate deeply into solid or liquid media, so to protect against external influences, it is enough to protect yourself with any thin layer, even a piece of paper.

Beta radiation is a stream of electrons produced by the decay of the nuclei of both natural and artificial radioactive elements. Beta radiation has greater penetrating power compared to alpha rays, which is why denser and thicker screens are required to protect against them. A type of beta radiation produced during the decay of some artificial radioactive elements are. positrons. They differ from electrons only in their positive charge, so when the beam of rays is exposed to a magnetic field, they are deflected in the opposite direction.

Gamma radiation, or energy quanta (photons), are hard electromagnetic vibrations produced during the decay of the nuclei of many radioactive elements. These rays have much greater penetrating power. Therefore, to shield from them, special devices are needed from materials that can block these rays well (lead, concrete, water). The ionizing effect of gamma radiation is mainly due to both the direct consumption of its own energy and the ionizing effect of electrons knocked out of the irradiated substance.

X-ray radiation is generated during the operation of X-ray tubes, as well as complex electronic installations (betatrons, etc.). X-rays are similar in nature to gamma rays, but differ in origin and sometimes wavelength: X-rays generally have longer wavelengths and lower frequencies than gamma rays. Ionization due to exposure to X-rays occurs largely due to the electrons they knock out and only slightly due to the direct waste of their own energy. These rays (especially hard ones) also have significant penetrating power.

Neutron radiation is a stream of neutral, that is, uncharged particles of neutrons (n) that are an integral part of all nuclei, with the exception of the hydrogen atom. They do not have charges, so they themselves do not have an ionizing effect, but a very significant ionizing effect occurs due to the interaction of neutrons with the nuclei of irradiated substances. Substances irradiated by neutrons can acquire radioactive properties, that is, receive so-called induced radioactivity. Neutron radiation is generated during the operation of particle accelerators, nuclear reactors, etc. Neutron radiation has the greatest penetrating power. Neutrons are retained by substances containing hydrogen in their molecules (water, paraffin, etc.).

All types of ionizing radiation differ from each other by different charges, mass and energy. There are also differences within each type of ionizing radiation, causing greater or less penetrating and ionizing ability and their other features. The intensity of all types of radioactive radiation, as with other types of radiant energy, is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the radiation source, that is, when the distance doubles or triples, the intensity of radiation decreases by 4 and 9 times, respectively.

Radioactive elements can be present in the form of solids, liquids and gases, therefore, in addition to their specific property of radiation, they have the corresponding properties of these three states; they can form aerosols, vapors, spread in the air, contaminate surrounding surfaces, including equipment, workwear, workers' skin, etc., and penetrate the digestive tract and respiratory organs.

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Radiation and types of radioactive radiation, the composition of radioactive (ionizing) radiation and its main characteristics. The effect of radiation on matter.

What is radiation

First, let's define what radiation is:

In the process of decay of a substance or its synthesis, the elements of an atom (protons, neutrons, electrons, photons) are released, otherwise we can say radiation occurs these elements. Such radiation is called - ionizing radiation or what is more common radioactive radiation, or even simpler radiation . Ionizing radiation also includes x-rays and gamma radiation.

Radiation is the process of emission of charged elementary particles by matter, in the form of electrons, protons, neutrons, helium atoms or photons and muons. The type of radiation depends on which element is emitted.

Ionization is the process of formation of positively or negatively charged ions or free electrons from neutrally charged atoms or molecules.

Radioactive (ionizing) radiation can be divided into several types, depending on the type of elements from which it consists. Different types of radiation are caused by different microparticles and therefore have different energetic effects on matter, different abilities to penetrate through it and, as a result, different biological effects of radiation.

Alpha, beta and neutron radiation- These are radiations consisting of various particles of atoms.

Gamma and X-rays is the emission of energy.

Alpha radiation

• are emitted: two protons and two neutrons
• penetrating power: low
• irradiation from source: up to 10 cm
• emission speed: 20,000 km/s
• ionization: 30,000 ion pairs per 1 cm of travel
• high

Alpha (α) radiation occurs during the decay of unstable isotopes elements.

Alpha radiation- this is the radiation of heavy, positively charged alpha particles, which are the nuclei of helium atoms (two neutrons and two protons). Alpha particles are emitted during the decay of more complex nuclei, for example, during the decay of atoms of uranium, radium, and thorium.

Alpha particles have a large mass and are emitted at a relatively low speed of an average of 20 thousand km/s, which is approximately 15 times less than the speed of light. Since alpha particles are very heavy, upon contact with a substance, the particles collide with the molecules of this substance, begin to interact with them, losing their energy, and therefore the penetrating ability of these particles is not great and even a simple sheet of paper can hold them back.

However, alpha particles carry a lot of energy and, when interacting with matter, cause significant ionization. And in the cells of a living organism, in addition to ionization, alpha radiation destroys tissue, leading to various damage to living cells.

Of all types of radiation, alpha radiation has the least penetrating power, but the consequences of irradiation of living tissues with this type of radiation are the most severe and significant compared to other types of radiation.

Exposure to alpha radiation can occur when radioactive elements enter the body, for example through air, water or food, or through cuts or wounds. Once in the body, these radioactive elements are carried through the bloodstream throughout the body, accumulate in tissues and organs, exerting a powerful energetic effect on them. Since some types of radioactive isotopes emitting alpha radiation have a long lifespan, when they enter the body, they can cause serious changes in cells and lead to tissue degeneration and mutations.

Radioactive isotopes are actually not eliminated from the body on their own, so once they get inside the body, they will irradiate the tissues from the inside for many years until they lead to serious changes. The human body is not able to neutralize, process, assimilate or utilize most radioactive isotopes that enter the body.

Neutron radiation

• are emitted: neutrons
• penetrating power: high
• irradiation from source: kilometers
• emission speed: 40,000 km/s
• ionization: from 3000 to 5000 ion pairs per 1 cm of run
• biological effects of radiation: high

Neutron radiation- this is man-made radiation arising in various nuclear reactors and during atomic explosions. Also, neutron radiation is emitted by stars in which active thermonuclear reactions occur.

Having no charge, neutron radiation colliding with matter weakly interacts with the elements of atoms at the atomic level, and therefore has high penetrating power. You can stop neutron radiation using materials with a high hydrogen content, for example, a container of water. Also, neutron radiation does not penetrate polyethylene well.

Neutron radiation, when passing through biological tissues, causes serious damage to cells, since it has a significant mass and a higher speed than alpha radiation.

Beta radiation

• are emitted: electrons or positrons
• penetrating power: average
• irradiation from source: up to 20 m
• emission speed: 300,000 km/s
• ionization: from 40 to 150 ion pairs per 1 cm of travel
• biological effects of radiation: average

Beta (β) radiation occurs when one element transforms into another, while the processes occur in the very nucleus of the atom of the substance with a change in the properties of protons and neutrons.

With beta radiation, a neutron is transformed into a proton or a proton into a neutron; during this transformation, an electron or positron (electron antiparticle) is emitted, depending on the type of transformation. The speed of the emitted elements approaches the speed of light and is approximately equal to 300,000 km/s. The elements emitted during this process are called beta particles.

Having an initially high radiation speed and small sizes of emitted elements, beta radiation has a higher penetrating ability than alpha radiation, but has hundreds of times less ability to ionize matter compared to alpha radiation.

Beta radiation easily penetrates through clothing and partially through living tissue, but when passing through denser structures of matter, for example, through metal, it begins to interact with it more intensely and loses most of its energy, transferring it to the elements of the substance. A metal sheet of a few millimeters can completely stop beta radiation.

If alpha radiation poses a danger only in direct contact with a radioactive isotope, then beta radiation, depending on its intensity, can already cause significant harm to a living organism at a distance of several tens of meters from the radiation source.

If a radioactive isotope emitting beta radiation enters a living organism, it accumulates in tissues and organs, exerting an energetic effect on them, leading to changes in the structure of the tissue and, over time, causing significant damage.

Some radioactive isotopes with beta radiation have a long decay period, that is, once they enter the body, they will irradiate it for years until they lead to tissue degeneration and, as a result, cancer.

Gamma radiation

• are emitted: energy in the form of photons
• penetrating power: high
• irradiation from source: up to hundreds of meters
• emission speed: 300,000 km/s
• ionization:
• biological effects of radiation: low

Gamma (γ) radiation is energetic electromagnetic radiation in the form of photons.

Gamma radiation accompanies the process of decay of atoms of matter and manifests itself in the form of emitted electromagnetic energy in the form of photons, released when the energy state of the atomic nucleus changes. Gamma rays are emitted from the nucleus at the speed of light.

When the radioactive decay of an atom occurs, other substances are formed from one substance. The atom of newly formed substances is in an energetically unstable (excited) state. By influencing each other, neutrons and protons in the nucleus come to a state where the interaction forces are balanced, and excess energy is emitted by the atom in the form of gamma radiation

Gamma radiation has a high penetrating ability and easily penetrates clothing, living tissue, and a little more difficult through dense structures of substances such as metal. To stop gamma radiation, a significant thickness of steel or concrete will be required. But at the same time, gamma radiation has a hundred times weaker effect on matter than beta radiation and tens of thousands of times weaker than alpha radiation.

The main danger of gamma radiation is its ability to travel significant distances and affect living organisms several hundred meters from the source of gamma radiation.

X-ray radiation

• are emitted: energy in the form of photons
• penetrating power: high
• irradiation from source: up to hundreds of meters
• emission speed: 300,000 km/s
• ionization: from 3 to 5 pairs of ions per 1 cm of travel
• biological effects of radiation: low

X-ray radiation- this is energetic electromagnetic radiation in the form of photons that arise when an electron inside an atom moves from one orbit to another.

X-ray radiation is similar in effect to gamma radiation, but has less penetrating power because it has a longer wavelength.

Having examined the various types of radioactive radiation, it is clear that the concept of radiation includes completely different types of radiation that have different effects on matter and living tissues, from direct bombardment with elementary particles (alpha, beta and neutron radiation) to energy effects in the form of gamma and x-rays cure.

Each of the radiations discussed is dangerous!

Comparative table with characteristics of different types of radiation

characteristic	Type of radiation
	Alpha radiation	Neutron radiation	Beta radiation	Gamma radiation	X-ray radiation
are emitted	two protons and two neutrons	neutrons	electrons or positrons	energy in the form of photons	energy in the form of photons
penetrating power	low	high	average	high	high
exposure from source	up to 10 cm	kilometers	up to 20 m	hundreds of meters	hundreds of meters
radiation speed	20,000 km/s	40,000 km/s	300,000 km/s	300,000 km/s	300,000 km/s
ionization, steam per 1 cm of travel	30 000	from 3000 to 5000	from 40 to 150	from 3 to 5	from 3 to 5
biological effects of radiation	high	high	average	low	low

As can be seen from the table, depending on the type of radiation, radiation at the same intensity, for example 0.1 Roentgen, will have a different destructive effect on the cells of a living organism. To take this difference into account, a coefficient k was introduced, reflecting the degree of exposure to radioactive radiation on living objects.

Factor k
Type of radiation and energy range	Weight multiplier
Photons all energies (gamma radiation)	1
Electrons and muons all energies (beta radiation)	1
Neutrons with energy < 10 КэВ (нейтронное излучение)	5
Neutrons from 10 to 100 KeV (neutron radiation)	10
Neutrons from 100 KeV to 2 MeV (neutron radiation)	20
Neutrons from 2 MeV to 20 MeV (neutron radiation)	10
Neutrons> 20 MeV (neutron radiation)	5
Protons with energies > 2 MeV (except for recoil protons)	5
Alpha particles, fission fragments and other heavy nuclei (alpha radiation)	20

The higher the “k coefficient”, the more dangerous the effect of a certain type of radiation is on the tissues of a living organism.

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