Anatomy of the central nervous system briefly. Anatomy of the central nervous system

Explanatory note

Anatomy of the central nervous system is a mandatory subject among natural science disciplines that provide the basic system of knowledge necessary for mastering higher professional education in the specialty “Psychology”. The course “Anatomy of the Central Nervous System” is designed to provide students with the necessary foundation for subsequent study of psychology. As a result of its mastery, future psychologists must clearly understand the inextricable relationship between structure and function, as well as have an idea of ​​the morphological foundations of the human psyche. The main objective of the course “Anatomy of the Central Nervous System” is the formation of ideas about the general principles and features of the structural organization of the human central nervous system, the functional manifestation of which is all forms of its mental activity.

The author used an integrative approach to developing the course content, which made it possible to comprehensively consider the issues of general anatomy, development and structure of the organs of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), as well as anatomical structures of the peripheral nervous system, including general principles and features of the structural organization of the autonomic nervous system. When studying integrative systems of the brain, special attention is paid to the construction of sensory and pyramidal pathways, as well as the morpho-functional features of the extrapyramidal and limbic systems, and their role in the formation of the human psyche is considered. The training course provides for the study of the anatomy of cranial nerves and the structural and functional organization of sensory organs that provide distant interaction with the environment. It also addresses the issues of blood supply to the brain and spinal cord, the structure of the meninges and the cerebrospinal fluid system as a whole. The author sought to ensure that the training course combines a description of the structure of the human nervous system and a clear presentation of the general and individual psychophysiological features of its functioning, which is very important for future psychologists.

Compliance of the program with the requirements of the State Standards.

The training course “Anatomy of the Central Nervous System” is one of the fundamental disciplines aimed at developing materialistic ideas about the human body, its morpho-functional integrity, as well as its biosocial essence. The idea of ​​nervism underlying the course allows students-psychologists to form a modern understanding of the nervous system as the most important control integrative system, which has the most complex anatomical structure in humans. The training course will allow psychology students to obtain the necessary information about the hierarchical structure of the nervous system, which meets the tasks of not only managing the vital activity of the body and coordinating its functions, but also implementing its diverse connections with the outside world, accumulating and using new information, implementing adaptive capabilities and regulating behavior in in general.

As a result of studying the discipline, students will know about:

  • processes of phylogenesis and ontogenesis of the human central nervous system based on an evolutionary approach;
  • modern methods of studying the anatomy of the nervous system;
  • microstructural organization of nervous tissue and the structure of nerve cells;
  • anatomical structure and development of the brain and spinal cord;
  • structure and topography of gray and white matter; functional significance of nerve centers;
  • morpho-functional organization of strio-pallidal, limbic, activation systems of the brain, ensuring vital activity and adaptive capabilities of mental activity, as well as regulation of behavior in general;
  • the structure and functions of pathways, their role in controlling human behavior;
  • structure and areas of innervation of cranial nerves;
  • features of the structural organization of the somatic and autonomic parts of the peripheral nervous system;
  • anatomy and functional characteristics of the sensory organs.

As a result of studying the discipline, students will be able to:

  • find details of the structure of the spinal cord and brain on anatomical models and images of anatomical preparations;
  • determine the topography of cranial, spinal and autonomic nerves, their plexuses, nerve ganglia on tables and images of anatomical preparations;
  • find details of the structure of sensory organs on anatomical models and images of anatomical preparations.

Topic 1. Introduction to the anatomy of the nervous system

The role of the nervous system in human life. Anatomy of the nervous system as a section of human anatomy. The importance of the anatomy of the nervous system for psychological practice. Levels of structural organization of the body: cell, tissue, organ, organ system, apparatus. Methods for studying the anatomy of the nervous system. Component sections of the anatomy of the nervous system.

Topic 2. Neuron. Nervous tissue

Neural theory of the structure of the nervous system. Morphological types of neurons, their anatomical and functional features, classification and localization in the nervous system. Neuron as an elementary structural and functional unit of nervous tissue. The concept of an integrative structural and functional unit of nervous tissue: neural ensembles (modules) and local neural networks.

Structure of a neurocyte. Neurofibrils, their functional significance. Dendrites and axons, the direction of nerve impulse conduction in a neuron. Structural organization of synapses, classification of synapses. The structure of different types of nerve fibers (myelinated and non-myelinated). Types of nerve endings, their classification.

The structure of nervous tissue. Differentiation and maturation of neurons. Structural and functional features and maturation of macro- and microglia. Regeneration and plasticity of nervous tissue.

Topic 3. Development of the nervous system

Development of the nervous system in phylo- and ontogenesis. The neural tube as a derivative of the ectoderm. Localization in the neural tube of motor (basal plate), associative (ala plate) and sensory neurons (ganglionic plate). Segmental anlage of the components of the nervous system; characteristics of the neurometer. Features of the fetal nervous system. Critical periods in the development of the nervous system. Development of the nervous system in the postnatal period of ontogenesis.

Topic 4. Anatomy of the spinal cord

Division of the nervous system into central (spinal cord and brain) and peripheral (nerves, nerve plexuses, nerve ganglia); somatic (animal) and vegetative (autonomous) parts. Neuronal composition of reflex arcs. Types of reception: exteroception, interoception and proprioception. The concept of the nerve center. Nerve centers of nuclear and screen (cortical) types.

Anatomy of the spinal cord. White and gray matter: topography, structure and functional characteristics. Segments of the spinal cord and segmental reflexes. Conducting tracts in the spinal cord: localization and functions.

Topic 5. Spinal nerves. Autonomic nervous system

Spinal nerve; anterior and posterior roots of the spinal nerves; spinal nodes and their structure. Branches of the spinal nerves, composition of nerve fibers; areas of innervation. Formation of somatic nerve plexuses, their functions. Cervical, brachial and lumbosacral plexuses. Innervation of the musculoskeletal system and integument of the body.

Sympathetic and parasympathetic parts of the autonomic nervous system. Features of the reflex arc in the autonomic nervous system. Autonomic ganglia, pre- and postganglionic nerve fibers. Centers of the sympathetic nervous system in the spinal cord. Sympathetic trunk, its divisions and branches. Centers of the parasympathetic nervous system in the brain and spinal cord. Autonomic (visceral) plexuses, their functions.

Topic 6. Anatomy of the brain. Brain stem and cerebellum

Brain development: stage of three brain vesicles (forebrain, midbrain, rhombencephalon). Stage of five brain vesicles (telencephalon, diencephalon, midbrain, hindbrain, medulla oblongata). Divisions of the brain. Topography of gray and white matter in the brain.

Brain stem. Similarities and differences in structure with the spinal cord. Sections of the brainstem and their structure. Ventricles of the brain.

Medulla oblongata: location, structure, connections with other parts of the central nervous system. Vasomotor and respiratory centers. Bridge: location, structure, role in the implementation of connections between the cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum. Midbrain: location, sections (roof, tegmentum, base), topography of gray and white matter, connections with other parts of the central nervous system. Subcortical centers of vision and hearing in the roof of the midbrain. Localization and functional significance of the red nucleus and substantia nigra. Reticular formation of the brainstem and its functional significance. Cerebellum: structure, connections with other parts of the central nervous system; cerebellar functions.

Topic 7. Cranial nerves

Cranial nerves. Features of the structure of cranial nerves, their similarities and differences with spinal nerves, areas of innervation and functional characteristics. I, II and VIII pairs of cranial nerves, features of their structure and connections with the sense organs. III, IV and VI pairs of cranial nerves innervating the extraocular muscles. V pair – trigeminal nerve, its branches, areas of innervation. VII pair - facial nerve; innervation of facial muscles. X pair – vagus nerve; areas of innervation. IX, XI and XII pairs of cranial nerves, areas of innervation.

Topic 8. Diencephalon

Diencephalon. Divisions (thalamus, epithalamus, metathalamus, hypothalamus, subthalamus), features of their development and structure, main groups of nuclei, connections with other divisions of the central nervous system. Functions of the diencephalon. The pineal gland and its role in the development and aging of the body. The hypothalamus as the highest subcortical center for the regulation of autonomic functions and the formation of emotions. Localization of drinking, eating and sexual centers and centers of biorhythmic activity of the body in the nuclei of the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland, its anterior and posterior lobes; the role of the pituitary gland in controlling the body's endocrine system.

Topic 9. Big brain

Finite brain. Departments, developmental features in connection with the formation of higher mental functions and conscious human activity. Topography of gray and white matter in the telencephalon. Cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum): gray and white matter of the hemispheres, lobes, sulci and gyri. Corpus callosum, anterior commissure, fornix. Cerebral cortex. The concept of cyto-, fibro- and myeloarchitecture of the cortex. Modular organization of the cerebral cortex. Localization of analyzer centers in the cerebral cortex. Speech centers and centers involved in the organization of complex mental functions (perception, attention, psycho-emotional behavior). The role of the frontal lobes of the brain in the regulation of human behavior. Lateralization of functions in the human brain hemispheres.

Basal ganglia of the cerebrum. Caudate nucleus and lentiform nucleus: localization, structure, connections with other parts of the central nervous system. The strio-pallidal system, its role in the regulation of movements.

Basal part of the cerebrum. The amygdala, the fence and related structures: localization, structure, connections with other parts of the central nervous system. The limbic system as a complex of formations of the telencephalon, diencephalon and midbrain. Main structural components, role in motivation of behavior, mechanisms of memory and learning.

Topic 10. Pathways of the central nervous system

Conducting pathways of the brain and spinal cord. Associative, commissural and projection fibers. Afferent (ascending pathways): exteroceptive pathways (pain and temperature sensitivity pathways, tactile sensitivity pathways); proprioceptive pathways (muscular-articular sense, sense of pressure and weight). Efferent (descending) motor pathways. The pyramidal system and its role in the regulation of conscious movements; localization of its centers in the precentral gyrus and paracentral lobule. Anterior corticospinal and lateral corticospinal tract. Extrapyramidal system and its role in coordination of movements; localization of its centers in different parts of the brain (reticular nuclei and inferior olives of the medulla oblongata, vestibular and reticular nuclei of the pons, cerebellum, red nuclei, superior and inferior colliculi of the roof of the medulla oblongata, basal nuclei of the telencephalon). The red nuclear spinal nerve tract is the main efferent pathway of the extrapyramidal system.

Anatomical features of the child’s central nervous system. Age stages of human brain development.

Topic 11. Anatomy of analyzers

Skin sensitivity. Receptors in the skin; skin analyzer pathways; cortical center of the general sensitivity analyzer in the area of ​​the postcentral gyrus (somatosensory cortex).

Proprioceptive sensitivity. Receptors in muscles and ligamentous-articular apparatus; proprioceptive nerve pathways of the cerebellar and cortical direction; cortical centers of proprioceptive sensitivity (somatosensory and sensorimotor cortex).

Olfactory analyzer. Localization of olfactory receptors in the area of ​​the upper nasal passage; pathways of olfactory sensitivity; center in the cerebral cortex in the region of the parahippocampal gyrus and uncinus.

Taste analyzer. Localization of receptors in the papillae of the tongue; pathways of taste sensitivity; centers in the cerebral cortex in the area of ​​the tegmentum, parahippocampal gyrus and hook.

Visual analyzer. The structure of the retina. Subcortical, cortical centers, conducting pathways of the visual analyzer; center in the cerebral cortex in the area of ​​the calcarine sulcus.

Hearing analyzer. Localization of auditory receptors and the mechanism of perception of sound vibrations. Subcortical centers carrying out the pathways of the auditory analyzer; centers in the cerebral cortex in the region of the superior temporal gyrus.

Balance analyzer. Localization of vestibular receptors and the mechanism of perception of vestibular stimulation. Subcortical, cortical centers conducting the paths of the balance analyzer.

If you are from UK and looking to learn about Adderall or to buy adderall online have a look at this website where you can order Adderall online from United Kingdom

The main part of the nervous system of vertebrates and humans is the central nervous system. It is represented by the brain and spinal cord and consists of many clusters of neurons and their processes. The central nervous system performs many important functions, the main one of which is the implementation of various reflexes.

What is the CNS?

As we evolved, the regulation and coordination of all vital processes of the body began to occur at a completely new level. Improved mechanisms began to provide a very fast response to any changes in the external environment. In addition, they began to remember the effects on the body that occurred in the past and, if necessary, retrieve this information. Similar mechanisms formed the nervous system that appeared in humans and vertebrates. It is divided into central and peripheral.

So what is the CNS? This is the main department that not only unites, but also coordinates the work of all organs and systems, and also ensures continuous interaction with the external environment and maintains normal mental activity.

Structural unit

A similar path includes:

  • sensory receptor;
  • afferent, associative, efferent neurons;
  • effector

All reactions are divided into 2 types:

  • unconditional (innate);
  • conditional (acquired).

The nerve centers of a large number of reflexes are located in the central nervous system, but the reactions, as a rule, are closed outside its boundaries.

Coordination activities

This is the most important function of the central nervous system, implying the regulation of the processes of inhibition and excitation in the structures of neurons, as well as the implementation of responses.

Coordination is necessary for the body to perform complex movements that involve numerous muscles. Examples: performing gymnastic exercises; speech accompanied by articulation; the process of swallowing food.

Pathologies

It is worth noting that the central nervous system is a system whose dysfunction negatively affects the functioning of the entire organism. Any failure poses a health hazard. Therefore, when the first alarming symptoms appear, you should consult a doctor.

The main types of central nervous system diseases are:

  • vascular;
  • chronic;
  • hereditary;
  • infectious;
  • received as a result of injuries.

Currently, about 30 pathologies of this system are known. The most common diseases of the central nervous system include:

  • insomnia;
  • Alzheimer's disease;
  • cerebral palsy;
  • Parkinson's disease;
  • migraine;
  • lumbago;
  • meningitis;
  • myasthenia gravis;
  • ischemic stroke;
  • neuralgia;
  • multiple sclerosis;
  • encephalitis.

Pathologies of the central nervous system arise as a result of lesions in any of its departments. Each of the ailments has unique symptoms and requires an individual approach to choosing a treatment method.

Finally

The task of the central nervous system is to ensure the coordinated functioning of each cell of the body, as well as its interaction with the outside world. Brief description of the central nervous system: it is represented by the brain and spinal cord, its structural unit is the neuron, and the main principle of its activity is reflex. Any disturbances in the functioning of the central nervous system inevitably lead to disruptions in the functioning of the entire body.

Second higher education in psychology in MBA format

item:Anatomy and evolution of the human nervous system.
Manual "Anatomy of the central nervous system"

1.1. History of the anatomy of the central nervous system
1.2. Research methods in anatomy
1.3. Anatomical terminology

Human anatomy is a science that studies the structure of the human body and the patterns of development of this structure.
Modern anatomy, being part of morphology, not only studies the structure, but also tries to explain the principles and patterns of the formation of certain structures. The anatomy of the central nervous system (CNS) is part of human anatomy. Knowledge of the anatomy of the central nervous system is necessary to understand the connection of psychological processes with certain morphological structures, both normally and in pathology.

1.1. History of the anatomy of the central nervous system
Already in primitive times, there was knowledge about the location of the vital organs of humans and animals, as evidenced by rock paintings. IN Ancient world , especially in Egypt, in connection with the mummification of corpses, some organs were described, but their functions were not always represented correctly.

Scientists had a great influence on the development of medicine and anatomy Ancient Greece . An outstanding representative of Greek medicine and anatomy was Hippocrates (c. 460-377 BC). He considered four “juices” to be the basis of the structure of the body: blood (sanguis), mucus (phlegma), bile (chole) and black bile (telaina chole). In his opinion, the types of human temperament depend on the predominance of one of these juices: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic. This is how the “humoral” (liquid) theory of the structure of the body arose. A similar classification, but, of course, with a different semantic content, has survived to this day.

IN Ancient Rome the most prominent representatives of medicine were Celsus and Galen. Aulus Cornelius Celsus (1st century BC) is the author of the eight-volume treatise “On Medicine,” in which he brought together the knowledge he knew about anatomy and practical medicine of ancient times. A great contribution to the development of anatomy was made by the Roman physician Galen (c. 130-200 AD), who was the first to introduce the method of animal vivisection into science and wrote the classic treatise “On the Parts of the Human Body,” in which he first gave an anatomical and physiological description of the whole body. Galen considered the human body to consist of dense and living parts, and based his scientific conclusions on observations of sick people and on the results of autopsies of animal corpses. He was also the founder of experimental medicine, conducting various experiments on animals. However, the anatomical concepts of this scientist were not without shortcomings. For example, Galen conducted most of his scientific research on pigs, whose body, although close to the human body, still has a number of significant differences from it. In particular, Galen attached great importance to the “wonderful network” (rete mirabile) he discovered - the vascular plexus at the base of the brain, since he believed that it was there that the “animal spirit” was formed, controlling movements and sensations. This hypothesis existed for almost 17 centuries, until anatomists proved that pigs and bulls have a similar network, but are absent in humans.

In the era Middle Ages all science in Europe, including anatomy, was subordinated to the Christian religion. Doctors of that time usually referred to the scientists of antiquity, whose authority was supported by the church. At this time, no significant discoveries were made in anatomy. The dissection of corpses, autopsies, and the production of skeletons and anatomical preparations were prohibited. The Muslim East played a positive role in the continuity of ancient and European science. In particular, in the Middle Ages, the books of Ibn Sipa (980-1037), known in Europe as Avicenna, the author of the “Canon of Medicine,” containing important anatomical information, were popular among doctors.

Anatomists of the era Renaissance obtained permission to conduct autopsies. Thanks to this, anatomical theaters were created to conduct public dissections. The founder of this titanic work was Leonardo da Vinci, and the founder of anatomy as an independent science was Andrei Vesalius (1514-1564). Andrei Vesalius studied medicine at the Sorbonne University and very soon realized the insufficiency of the then existing anatomical knowledge for the practical work of a doctor. The situation was complicated by the church's ban on dissection of corpses - the only source of study of the human body at that time. Vesalius, despite the real danger from the Inquisition, systematically studied the human structure and created the first truly scientific atlas of the human body. To do this, he had to secretly dig up the freshly buried corpses of executed criminals and conduct his research on them. At the same time, he exposed and eliminated numerous errors of Galen, which laid the foundation for the analytical period in anatomy, during which many discoveries of a descriptive nature were made. In his writings, Vesalius focused on a systematic description of all human organs, as a result of which he was able to discover and describe many new anatomical facts (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1. Drawing of a dissected brain from the atlas of Andrei Vesalius (1543):

For his activities, Andrei Vesalius was persecuted by the church, was sent to repentance in Palestine, was shipwrecked and died on the island of Zante in 1564.

After the work of A. Vesalius, anatomy began to develop at a faster pace, in addition, the church no longer so harshly persecuted the dissection of corpses by doctors and anatomists. As a result, the study of anatomy has become an integral part of the training of doctors in all European universities (Fig. 1.2).

Rice. 1.2. Rembrandt Harmens van Rijn. Anatomy lesson of Dr. Tulp (late 17th century):

Attempts to connect anatomical structures with mental activity gave rise to the science of phrenology at the end of the 18th century. Its founder, the Austrian anatomist Franz Gahl, tried to prove the existence of strictly defined connections between the structural features of the skull and the mental characteristics of people. However, after some time, objective studies showed the unfoundedness of phrenological statements (Fig. 1.3).

Rice. 1.3. Drawing from an atlas on phrenology depicting “mounds of secrecy, greed and gluttony” on a man’s head (1790):

The following discoveries in the field of the anatomy of the central nervous system were associated with the improvement of microscopic techniques. First, August von Waller proposed his method of Wallerian degeneration, which makes it possible to trace the paths of nerve fibers in the human body, and then the discovery of new methods of staining nerve structures by E. Golgi and S. Ramon y Cajal made it possible to find out that in addition to neurons in the nervous system there is also a huge number of auxiliary cells - neuroglia.

Remembering the history of anatomical research of the central nervous system, it should be noted that such an outstanding psychologist as Sigmund Freud began his career in medicine as a neurologist - that is, a researcher of the anatomy of the nervous system.

In Russia, the development of anatomy was closely connected with the concept of nervism, which proclaimed the primary importance of the nervous system in regulating physiological functions. In the middle of the 19th century, the Kiev anatomist V. Betz (1834-1894) discovered giant pyramidal cells (Betz cells) in the V layer of the cerebral cortex and revealed differences in the cellular composition of different parts of the cerebral cortex. Thus, he laid the foundation for the doctrine of the cytoarchitectonics of the cerebral cortex.

A major contribution to the anatomy of the brain and spinal cord was made by the outstanding neuropathologist and psychiatrist V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927), who expanded the doctrine of the localization of functions in the cerebral cortex, deepened the reflex theory and created an anatomical and physiological basis for diagnosing and understanding the manifestations of nervous diseases . In addition, V. M. Bekhterev discovered a number of brain centers and conductors.

Currently, the focus of anatomical research on the nervous system has moved from the macroworld to the microworld. Nowadays, the most significant discoveries are being made in the field of microscopy not only of individual cells and their organelles, but also at the level of individual biomacromolecules.

1.2. Research methods in anatomy
All anatomical methods can be divided into macroscopic , which study the entire organism, organ systems, individual organs or parts thereof, and on microscopic , the object of which are tissues and cells of the human body and cellular organelles. In the latter case, anatomical methods merge with the methods of such sciences as histology (the science of tissues) and cytology (the science of cells) (Fig. 1.4).

Rice. 1.4. Main groups of methods for studying the morphology of the central nervous system :

In turn, macroscopic and microscopic studies consist of a set of various methodological techniques that make it possible to study various aspects of morphological formations in the nervous system as a whole, in individual areas of nervous tissue, or even in an individual neuron. Accordingly, we can distinguish a set of macroscopic (Fig. 1.5) and microscopic (Fig. 1.6) methods for studying the morphology of the central nervous system

Rice. 1.5. Macroscopic methods for studying the nervous system :

Rice. 1.6. Microscopic methods for studying the nervous system :

Since the task of anatomical research (from the point of view of psychology) is to identify connections between anatomical structures and mental processes, several methods from the arsenal of physiology can be connected to the methods of studying the morphology (structure) of the central nervous system (Fig. 1.7).

Rice. 1.7. General methods for physiology and anatomy of the central nervous system :

1.3. Anatomical terminology
To have a correct understanding of the structures of the brain and spinal cord, it is necessary to know some elements of anatomical nomenclature.

The human body is presented in three planes, horizontal, sagittal and frontal, respectively.
Horizontal the plane runs, as its name suggests, parallel to the horizon, sagittal divides the human body into two symmetrical halves (right and left), frontal the plane divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.

There are two axes in the horizontal plane. If the object is closer to the back, then it is said to be located dorsally, if closer to the stomach - ventrally. If an object is located closer to the midline, to the plane of symmetry of a person, then it is said to be located medially, if further - then laterally.

In the frontal plane, two axes are also distinguished: medio-lateral and rostro-caudal. If an object is located closer to the lower part of the body (in animals - to the back, or tail), then it is said to be caudal, and if it is located to the top (closer to the head), then it is located rostral.

There are also two axes in the human sagittal plane; rostro-caudal and dorso-ventral. Thus, the relative position of any anatomical objects can be characterized by their relative position in three planes and axes.

Gray and white matter of the brain. White matter of the hemispheres. Gray matter of the hemisphere. Frontal lobe. Parietal lobe. Temporal lobe. Occipital lobe. Island.

http://monax.ru/order/ - essays to order (more than 2300 authors in 450 cities of the CIS).

ANATOMY OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

ABSTRACT

Topic: "Gray and white matter of the brain"

WHITE MATTER HEMISPHERES

The entire space between the gray matter of the cerebral cortex and the basal ganglia is occupied by white matter. The white matter of the hemispheres is formed by nerve fibers connecting the cortex of one gyrus with the cortex of other gyri of its and the opposite hemispheres, as well as with underlying formations. Topographics in the white matter distinguish four parts, vaguely delimited from each other:

white matter in the gyri between the sulci;

area of ​​white matter in the outer parts of the hemisphere - semi-oval center ( centrum semiovale);

radiant crown ( corona radiata), formed by radiating fibers entering the internal capsule ( capsule interna) and those leaving it;

central substance of the corpus callosum ( corpus callosum), internal capsule and long associative fibers.

Nerve fibers of white matter are divided into associative, commissural and projection.

Association fibers connect different parts of the cortex of the same hemisphere. They are divided into short and long. Short fibers connect neighboring convolutions in the form of arcuate bundles. Long association fibers connect areas of the cortex that are more distant from each other.

Commissural fibers, which are part of the cerebral commissures, or commissures, connect not only symmetrical points, but also the cortex belonging to different lobes of the opposite hemispheres.

Most of the commissural fibers are part of the corpus callosum, which connects the parts of both hemispheres belonging to neencephalon. Two brain adhesions Commissura anterior And commissura fornicis, much smaller in size belong to the olfactory brain rhinencephalon and connect: Commissura anterior- olfactory lobes and both parahippocampal gyri, commissura fornicis- hippocampi.

Projection fibers connect the cerebral cortex with the underlying formations, and through them with the periphery. These fibers are divided into:

centripetal - ascending, corticopetal, afferent. They conduct excitation towards the cortex;

centrifugal (descending, corticofugal, efferent).

Projection fibers in the white matter of the hemisphere closer to the cortex form the corona radiata, and then the main part of them converges into the internal capsule, which is a layer of white matter between the lenticular nucleus ( nucleus lentiformis) on one side, and the caudate nucleus ( nucleus caudatus) and thalamus ( thalamus) - with another. On a frontal section of the brain, the internal capsule looks like an oblique white stripe that continues into the cerebral peduncle. In the internal capsule the anterior leg is distinguished ( crus anterius), - between the caudate nucleus and the anterior half of the inner surface of the lentiform nucleus, the posterior peduncle ( crus posterius), - between the thalamus and the posterior half of the lentiform nucleus and genu ( genu), lying at the inflection point between both parts of the internal capsule. Projection fibers can be divided according to their length into the following three systems, starting with the longest:

Tractus corticospinalis (pyramidalis) conducts motor volitional impulses to the muscles of the trunk and limbs.

Tractus corticonuclearis- pathways to the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves. All motor fibers are collected in a small space in the internal capsule (the knee and the anterior two-thirds of its posterior limb). And if they are damaged in this place, unilateral paralysis of the opposite side of the body is observed.

Tractus corticopontini- paths from the cerebral cortex to the pontine nuclei. Using these pathways, the cerebral cortex has an inhibitory and regulatory effect on the activity of the cerebellum.

Fibrae thalamocorticalis et corticothalamici- fibers from the thalamus to the cortex and back from the cortex to the thalamus.

GRAY MATTER OF THE HEMISPHERE

Surface of the hemisphere, cloak ( pallium), formed by a uniform layer of gray matter 1.3 - 4.5 mm thick, containing nerve cells. The surface of the cloak has a very complex pattern, consisting of grooves alternating in different directions and ridges between them, called convolutions, gyri. The size and shape of the grooves are subject to significant individual fluctuations, as a result of which not only the brains of different people, but even the hemispheres of the same individual are not quite similar in the pattern of the grooves.

Deep, permanent grooves are used to divide each hemisphere into large areas called lobes. lobi; the latter, in turn, are divided into lobules and convolutions. There are five lobes of the hemisphere: frontal ( lobus frontalis), parietal ( lobus parietalis), temporal ( lobus temporalis), occipital ( lobus occipitalis) and a lobule hidden at the bottom of the lateral sulcus, the so-called islet ( insula).

The superolateral surface of the hemisphere is delimited into lobes by three grooves: the lateral, central and upper end of the parieto-occipital groove. Lateral sulcus ( sulcus cerebri lateralis) begins on the basal surface of the hemisphere from the lateral fossa and then passes to the superolateral surface. Central sulcus ( sulcus centralis) begins at the upper edge of the hemisphere and goes forward and down. The part of the hemisphere located in front of the central sulcus belongs to the frontal lobe. The part of the brain surface lying posterior to the central sulcus constitutes the parietal lobe. The posterior border of the parietal lobe is the end of the parieto-occipital sulcus ( sulcus parietooccipitalis), located on the medial surface of the hemisphere.

Each lobe consists of a number of convolutions, called in some places lobules, which are limited by grooves on the surface of the brain.

Frontal lobe

In the posterior part of the outer surface of this lobe there is sulcus precentralis almost parallel to the direction sulcus centralis. Two furrows run from it in the longitudinal direction: sulcus frontalis superior et sulcus frontalis inferior. Due to this, the frontal lobe is divided into four convolutions. vertical gyrus, gyrus precentralis, located between the central and precentral sulci. The horizontal gyri of the frontal lobe are: superior frontal ( gyrus frontalis superior), middle frontal ( gyrus frontalis medius) and inferior frontal ( gyrus frontalis inferior) shares.

Parietal lobe

On it there is located approximately parallel to the central groove sulcus postcentralis, usually merging with sulcus intraparietalis, which goes in the horizontal direction. Depending on the location of these grooves, the parietal lobe is divided into three gyri. vertical gyrus, gyrus postcentralis, goes behind the central sulcus in the same direction as the precentral gyrus. Above the interparietal sulcus is the superior parietal gyrus, or lobule ( lobulus parietalis superior), below - lobulus parietalis inferior.

Temporal lobe

The lateral surface of this lobe has three longitudinal gyri, delimited from each other sulcus temporalis superio r and sulcus temporalis inferior. stretches between the superior and inferior temporal grooves gyrus temporalis medius. Below it passes gyrus temporalis inferior.

Occipital lobe

The grooves on the lateral surface of this lobe are variable and inconsistent. Of these, the transverse one is distinguished sulcus occipitalis transversus, usually connecting to the end of the interparietal sulcus.

Island

This lobe has the shape of a triangle. The surface of the insula is covered with short convolutions.

The lower surface of the hemisphere in that part that lies anterior to the lateral fossa belongs to the frontal lobe.

Here, parallel to the medial edge of the hemisphere, runs sulcus olfactorius. On the posterior portion of the basal surface of the hemisphere two grooves are visible: sulcus occipitotemporalis, passing in the direction from the occipital pole to the temporal and limiting gyrus occipitotemporalis lateralis, and running parallel to it sulcus collateralis. Between them is located gyrus occipitotemporalis medialis. There are two gyri located medially from the collateral sulcus: between the posterior part of this sulcus and sulcus calcarinus lies gyrus lingualis; between the anterior section of this groove and the deep sulcus hippocampi lies gyrus parahippocampalis. This gyrus, adjacent to the brain stem, is already located on the medial surface of the hemisphere.

On the medial surface of the hemisphere there is a groove of the corpus callosum ( sulcus corpori callosi), running directly above the corpus callosum and continuing with its posterior end into the deep sulcus hippocampi, which is directed forward and downward. Parallel to and above this groove runs along the medial surface of the hemisphere sulcus cinguli. Paracentral lobule ( lobulus paracentralis) is called a small area above the ligular sulcus. Posterior to the paracentral lobule there is a quadrangular surface (the so-called precuneus, precuneus). It belongs to the parietal lobe. Behind the precuneus lies a separate area of ​​the cortex belonging to the occipital lobe - the wedge ( cuneus). Between the lingular sulcus and the sulcus of the corpus callosum stretches the cingulate gyrus ( gyrus cinguli), which, through the isthmus ( isthmus) continues into the parahippocampal gyrus, ending in the uncus ( uncus). Gyrus cinguli, isthmus And gyrus parahippocampali s together form the vaulted gyrus ( gyrus fornicatus), which describes an almost complete circle, open only at the bottom and front. The vaulted gyrus is not related to any of the cloak lobes. It belongs to the limbic region. The limbic region is part of the neocortex of the cerebral hemispheres, occupying the cingulate and parahippocampal gyri; part of the limbic system. Pushing the edge sulcus hippocampi, you can see a narrow jagged gray stripe, representing a rudimentary gyrus gyrus dentatus.

L I T E R A T U R A

Big medical encyclopedia. vol. 6, M., 1977

2. Great medical encyclopedia. vol. 11, M., 1979

3. M.G. Prives, N.K. Lysenkov, V.I. Bushkovich. Human anatomy. M., 1985





To download work you need to join our group for free In contact with. Just click on the button below. By the way, in our group we help with writing educational papers for free.


A few seconds after checking your subscription, a link to continue downloading your work will appear.
Promote originality of this work. Bypass Antiplagiarism.

REF-Master- a unique program for independent writing of essays, coursework, tests and dissertations. With the help of REF-Master, you can easily and quickly create an original essay, test or coursework based on the finished work - Anatomy of the Central Nervous System.
The main tools used by professional abstract agencies are now at the disposal of abstract.rf users absolutely free of charge!
How to write correctly introduction?

Secrets of the ideal introduction of coursework (as well as essays and diplomas) from professional authors of the largest essay agencies in Russia. Find out how to correctly formulate the relevance of the topic of work, define goals and objectives, indicate the subject, object and methods of research, as well as the theoretical, legal and practical basis of your work.

Secrets of the ideal conclusion of a thesis and term paper from professional authors of the largest essay agencies in Russia. Find out how to correctly formulate conclusions about the work done and make recommendations for improving the issue being studied.


(coursework, diploma or report) without risks, directly from the author.

Similar works:

03/18/2008/creative work

Human anatomy represented in crossword puzzles. To complete this task, not only knowledge of the physiology course will be useful, but also knowledge of the Latin language. Under each word given in Russian, write its translation - you get a Latin proverb.

02/22/2007/abstract

Location and shape of the lungs. The structure of the lungs. Branching of the bronchi. Macro-microscopic structure of the lung. Interlobular connective tissue. Alveolar ducts and sacs. Segmental structure of the lungs. Bronchopulmonary segments.

01/23/2009/abstract

Base of the brain. Hemispheres of the cerebrum. Visual system. Medulla. The main areas of the right hemisphere of the cerebrum are the frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes. Midbrain, diencephalon and telencephalon. Cerebral cortex.

05/20/2010/abstract

Anatomical structure of the nose, structural features of the mucous membrane. Congenital anomalies of the external nose, causes of acute rhinitis. Types of chronic runny nose, treatment methods. Foreign bodies in the nasal cavity Deformation of the nasal septum, trauma.

05/10/2009/report

Diagnostic difficulties of esophageal diseases. Macroscopic and functional anatomy, characteristics and types of esophageal disorders. Description and classification of esophageal bleeding according to the amount of blood or fluid required to replenish the volume.

03/15/2009/abstract

Chronic obliterating diseases of the arteries of the lower extremities as congenital or acquired disorders of arterial patency in the form of stenosis or occlusion. Chronic ischemia of tissues of the lower extremities of varying severity and changes in cells.

Central nervous system (CNS)- the main part of the nervous system of animals and humans, consisting of a collection of nerve cells (neurons) and their processes.

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord and their protective membranes. The outermost is the dura mater, under it is the arachnoid (arachnoid), and then the pia mater, fused with the surface of the brain. Between the pia mater and the arachnoid membrane is the subarachnoid space, which contains cerebrospinal fluid, in which both the brain and spinal cord literally float. The action of the buoyant force of the fluid leads to the fact that, for example, the adult brain, which has an average mass of 1500 g, actually weighs 50-100 g inside the skull. The meninges and cerebrospinal fluid also play the role of shock absorbers, softening all kinds of shocks and shocks that tests the body and which could lead to damage to the nervous system.

The central nervous system is made up of gray and white matter. Gray matter is composed of cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons, organized into complexes that include countless synapses and serve as information processing centers for many functions of the nervous system. White matter consists of myelinated and unmyelinated axons that act as conductors transmitting impulses from one center to another. The gray and white matter also contains glial cells. CNS neurons form many circuits that perform two main functions: they provide reflex activity, as well as complex information processing in higher brain centers. These higher centers, such as the visual cortex (visual cortex), receive incoming information, process it, and transmit a response signal along the axons.

The result of the activity of the nervous system is one or another activity, which is based on the contraction or relaxation of muscles or the secretion or cessation of secretion of glands. It is with the work of muscles and glands that any way of our self-expression is connected. Incoming sensory information is processed through a sequence of centers connected by long axons that form specific pathways, for example pain, visual, auditory. Sensory (ascending) pathways go in an ascending direction to the centers of the brain. Motor (descending) tracts connect the brain with motor neurons of the cranial and spinal nerves. The pathways are usually organized in such a way that information (for example, pain or tactile) from the right side of the body enters the left side of the brain and vice versa. This rule also applies to the descending motor pathways: the right half of the brain controls the movements of the left half of the body, and the left half controls the movements of the right. There are, however, a few exceptions to this general rule.

Consists of three main structures: the cerebral hemispheres, the cerebellum and the brainstem.

The cerebral hemispheres - the largest part of the brain - contain higher nerve centers that form the basis of consciousness, intelligence, personality, speech, and understanding. In each of the cerebral hemispheres, the following formations are distinguished: underlying isolated accumulations (nuclei) of gray matter, which contain many important centers; a large mass of white matter located above them; covering the outside of the hemispheres is a thick layer of gray matter with numerous convolutions that makes up the cerebral cortex.

The cerebellum also consists of an underlying gray matter, an intermediate mass of white matter, and an outer thick layer of gray matter that forms many convolutions. The cerebellum primarily provides coordination of movements.

The brainstem is formed by a mass of gray and white matter that is not divided into layers. The trunk is closely connected with the cerebral hemispheres, the cerebellum and the spinal cord and contains numerous centers of sensory and motor pathways. The first two pairs of cranial nerves arise from the cerebral hemispheres, while the remaining ten pairs arise from the trunk. The trunk regulates vital functions such as breathing and blood circulation.

Located inside the spinal column and protected by its bone tissue, the spinal cord has a cylindrical shape and is covered with three membranes. In a cross section, the gray matter is shaped like the letter H or a butterfly. Gray matter is surrounded by white matter. Sensitive fibers of the spinal nerves end in the dorsal (posterior) parts of the gray matter - the dorsal horns (at the ends of the H, facing the back). The bodies of motor neurons of the spinal nerves are located in the ventral (anterior) parts of the gray matter - the anterior horns (at the ends of the H, distant from the back). In the white matter there are ascending sensory pathways ending in the gray matter of the spinal cord, and descending motor pathways coming from the gray matter. In addition, many fibers in the white matter connect different parts of the gray matter of the spinal cord.

Home and specific central nervous system function- implementation of simple and complex highly differentiated reflective reactions, called reflexes. In higher animals and humans, the lower and middle sections of the central nervous system - the spinal cord, medulla oblongata, midbrain, diencephalon and cerebellum - regulate the activity of individual organs and systems of a highly developed organism, carry out communication and interaction between them, ensure the unity of the organism and the integrity of its activities. The higher department of the central nervous system - the cerebral cortex and the nearest subcortical formations - mainly regulates the connection and relationship of the body as a whole with the environment.

Main structural features and functions The central nervous system is connected to all organs and tissues through the peripheral nervous system, which in vertebrates includes cranial nerves extending from the brain, and spinal nerves from the spinal cord, intervertebral nerve ganglia, as well as the peripheral part of the autonomic nervous system - nerve ganglia, with nerve fibers approaching them (preganglionic) and extending from them (postganglionic).

Sensitive, or afferent, nerve adductor fibers carry excitation to the central nervous system from peripheral receptors; along the efferent efferent (motor and autonomic) nerve fibers, excitation from the central nervous system is directed to the cells of the executive working apparatus (muscles, glands, blood vessels, etc.). In all parts of the central nervous system there are afferent neurons that perceive stimuli coming from the periphery, and efferent neurons that send nerve impulses to the periphery to various executive effector organs.

Afferent and efferent cells with their processes can contact each other and form a two-neuron reflex arc that carries out elementary reflexes (for example, tendon reflexes of the spinal cord). But, as a rule, intercalary nerve cells, or interneurons, are located in the reflex arc between the afferent and efferent neurons. Communication between different parts of the central nervous system is also carried out using many processes of afferent, efferent and intercalary neurons of these parts, forming intracentral short and long pathways. The CNS also includes neuroglial cells, which perform a supporting function in it and also participate in the metabolism of nerve cells.

Which doctors to contact for examination of the Central nervous system:

Neurologist

Neurosurgeon