Syn: spirulina platensis, blue-green algae.

Spirulina is a cyanobacterium (blue-green algae). It grows mainly in alkaline lakes of Africa (Chad, Kenya, Ethiopia), Asia, South and Central America. It is a dietary supplement and is cultivated throughout the world.

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In medicine

Spirulina is not a pharmacopoeial plant and is not used in official medicine as part of medications. However, spirulina is widely used in the production of dietary supplements and food products. Dietary supplements and spirulina products are presented in the form of frozen algae, tablets, flakes and powders for weight loss. Spirulina improves the condition in diseases of the gastrointestinal tract (dysbacteriosis, ulcers, gastritis), diseases of the upper respiratory tract, bronchial asthma, cardiovascular diseases (coronary diseases, atherosclerosis, vegetative-vascular dystonia). The beneficial substances of spirulina normalize blood counts in anemia, act as a hepatoprotector in liver diseases, accelerate wound healing and bone fusion in postoperative and trauma patients.

The quantitative composition of amino acids, vitamins, minerals and polyunsaturated fatty acids has a positive effect when using spirulina for weight loss. The property of spirulina to increase the body's endurance is important for athletes, bodybuilders and professional athletes.

Contraindications and side effects

Spirulina is contraindicated for people with individual intolerance to its components, as well as for children, pregnant and lactating women. A symptom of overdose or intolerance is yellowing of the palms. The use of seaweed is not recommended for liver and kidney failure. It is necessary to consult a doctor on the use of spirulina for hyperfunction of the thyroid gland, heart failure, and peptic ulcer in the acute stage.

In cooking

Spirulina (Spirulina platensis) is a green microalgae that contains an impressive amount of easily digestible protein (up to 60-70%), as well as valuable rare amino acids. This makes spirulina a “record holder” for protein content, as well as a valuable food product. Spirulina also contains from 10 to 20% sugars, which are easily absorbed with a minimal amount of insulin.

The cholesterol content in spirulina is extremely low - 32.5 mg/100g, while in an egg there are 300 mg for the same amount of protein, so regular consumption of spirulina leads to a decrease in cholesterol in the body. Its composition includes up to 8% fat, represented by essential fatty acids. Another important fact is that spirulina contains vital vitamins in optimal proportions - A1, B1, B2, B3, B6, B12, PP, biotin, folic acid, inositol. pantothenate, vitamins C and E.

Spirulina contains a record amount of Beta-carotene (provitamin A) among plants - there is 35 times more of it in spirulina than in carrots. This algae also contains a lot of iron, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus and other trace elements.

Research by American scientists notes the high effectiveness of spirulina in the fight against excess weight. It contains a large amount of nutrients and valuable substances, they are balanced in an almost ideal ratio for humans. In addition, spirulina has a high energy value due to its protein content, which allows you to feel full for a long time and maintain normal insulin levels. An additional effect is that spirulina swells in the stomach and intestines, enveloping the walls of the gastrointestinal tract and prolonging the feeling of fullness.

In European restaurants, spirulina is used as a spice for various dishes, and in Germany a line of meat products containing spirulina is gaining popularity. Spirulina is no less popular in China and South Korea, where it is sold both in dry form (together with kelp) and in drinks and salads.

In cosmetology

Spirulina contains a number of substances that are especially valuable in modern cosmetology. Algae are used in popular cosmetic procedures (SPA and thalassotherapy), for the production of anti-aging cosmetics, hair masks, face masks and body wraps. Thanks to the stimulation of collagen and elastin production, it is difficult to overestimate the beneficial properties of spirulina for the skin. It saturates skin cells with amino acids, proteins, minerals, salts and vitamins.

On the farm

Spirulina is used in livestock farming (horse breeding, pig farming), poultry farming and beekeeping as a feed additive. Also used for breeding aquarium fish. Modern research has shown that the introduction of algae into the diet of living creatures helps to accelerate growth, increase life expectancy and productivity.

Classification

Spirulina Spirulina (lat. Arthrospira) platensis is a species of planktonic cyanobacterium. Belongs to the genus Arthrospira (lat. Arthrospira) - cyanobacteria of the order Oscillatoriaceae (lat. Oscillatoriales). There are mainly two species used: Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima.

Botanical description

Spirulina (lat. Arthrospira) platensis (Nordst.) Geitl. - filamentous planktonic cyanobacterium of spiral shape. It has a low level of cellular differentiation (there are no chromatophores, a true nucleus, nucleoli, vacuoles, mitochondria, or endoplasmic reticulum). The body of spirulina is a non-branching thread (trichome, or filament) in the shape of a spiral. Trichomes are made up of identical cells. Cell septa are not visible under a light microscope.

The mucous membranes are poorly developed. Trichomes are adapted to perform translational and rotational movements, and can straighten under the influence of physical or chemical factors. The filaments accumulate in bundles or intertwine with other types of algae. Types of spirulina differ in the length and shape of the threads. The cyanobacterium reproduces vegetatively - by fragments of trichomes.

Spreading

Blue-green algae is found in tropical and subtropical alkaline lakes in Africa, Asia, South and Central America. It is actively cultivated for commercial purposes by producers in the USA, Thailand, Taiwan, China, India, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Greece and Chile.

Procurement of raw materials

For the production of cosmetics, medicines and dietary supplements, raw materials collected from the surface of the water are used. The algae is dried in a ventilated area or in the sun. There are two ways to store spirulina:

Dry, powdered raw materials. It is stored for 1.5 years.

Freezing seaweed. Shelf life – 2 years.

Chemical composition

The chemical composition of spirulina has more than 2000 components. Among them: 18 amino acids (8 essential), polyunsaturated fatty acids (gamma-linolenic (GLA), alpha-linolenic (ALA), linoleic (LA), stearidonic (SDA), eicosapentaenoic (EPA), docosahexaenoic (DHA) and arachidonic ( AA), micro- and macroelements (Fe, Ca, Cu, Mg, Zn, P, Se), vitamins (A, C, E, K, PP, group B, choline), plant pigments (chlorophyll, carotenoids and phycocyanin) , nucleic acids (DNA, RNA), enzymes.

Pharmacological properties

Spirulina is a powerful adaptogenic, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, multivitamin and antianemic agent. Helps restore vision and relieves inflammation of the retina. The use of spirulina normalizes blood sugar and cholesterol levels, protein-carbohydrate metabolism, acid-base and water-salt balance. The components help rejuvenate and remove waste, toxins and heavy metals from the body.

Use in folk medicine

Seaweed is considered one of the best natural medicines. This is due to ancient beliefs in the miraculous power of the sea and the sun, which is absorbed by sea plants, including algae. Spirulina was no exception, so since ancient times it has been eaten as a medicine to strengthen blood vessels, normalize blood pressure and improve the functioning of the cardiovascular system, as well as for overweight and high cholesterol.

Historical reference

Spirulina is the first photosynthetic life form on Earth. Appeared 3.5 billion years ago. Representatives of the ancient world used algae in their diet. According to one of the chronicles of the ancient Aztecs, the supreme leader Montezuma often ate fish that was found in the Gulf of Mexico (180 miles from the settlement). The marathon runners, who ran 100 miles a day to deliver the product to the leader, always carried a bag of spirulina powder with them. When they stopped to rest, they ate a little powder to restore strength and energy. Green spirulina cakes were considered sacred food by ancient Egyptian priests and pharaohs.

James Cook mentioned in his essays the “green bread” made from seaweed that he saw among the Aborigines. In 1521, Bernard Diaz Castillo, in his work on the conquests of the Spanish conquistadors, mentioned biscuits called “tecuitlatl”, which were consumed by the Aztecs. This dish was dried layers of spirulina from Lake Texcoco near Mexico City.

In 1940, the French algologist Danger became acquainted with blue-green algae, which were eaten by residents of the Republic of Chad. Later he discovered similar plants in the lakes of the Rift Valley of America. He reported this in a little-known magazine. 25 years later (in 1965), an expedition group of the Belgian botanist Leonard discovered the Kanebou tribe in the African forests around Lake Chad. The life expectancy and physical condition of the representatives of this tribe forced the scientist to study their lifestyle and diet. Upon returning from the expedition, Leonard examined spirulina and found out that it contains up to 70% protein.

Since the 1980s, spirulina has been used as a food supplement throughout the world. During the same period, Lomonosov Moscow State University received an order to develop methods for growing spirulina in artificial conditions and producing drugs based on it. The project was headed by professors A. Soloviev and M. Lyamin. In the mid-90s, the algae reached the mass consumer.

In the United States, spirulina is consumed by overweight people. Also, some astronauts, athletes, climbers, tourists and military personnel use it in their diet.

Literature

Vonshak, A. (ed.). Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): Physiology, Cell-biology and Biotechnology. London: Taylor & Francis, 1997.

Belyakova G. A. Algae and mushrooms: a textbook for students. higher textbook institutions - T.4 - M.: “Academy” - 2006 - 320 p. ISBN 5-7695-2730-7. - M.: Higher. school, 1990. - P. 251.

1. Diaz Del Castillo, B. The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico, 1517-1521. London: Routledge, 1928, p. 300.

Osborne, Ken; Kahn, Charles N. World History: Societies of the Past. - Winnipeg: Portage & Main Press, 2005.

Ciferri O (December 1983). "Spirulina, the edible microorganism". Microbiol. Rev. 47 (4): 551–78.

Belay, Amha (2008). "Spirulina (Arthrospira): Production and Quality Assurance". Spirulina in Human Nutrition and Health, CRC Press: 1–25.

Spirulina- a unique and amazing plant in nature. It has existed on our planet for more than hundreds of millions of years. The secret of its longevity is its special biochemical composition.

Spirulina is well known as a common dietary supplement. It was a source of food for the Aztecs and other Indian tribes. Now it is mined in Chad and the Chinese Lake Qinghai, and cultivated all over the world.

Algae has found wide application in modern cosmetology and has many beneficial properties. It is used at home and in traditional medicine.

What is spirulina

What is spirulina and how is it useful? This is a long-lived blue-green algae. It has high nutritional value and is completely absorbed by the human body.

The benefits of the plant are contained in its biological composition. Each of the components is responsible for the vital functions and properties of the human body.

• Arganine removes toxins from the blood and waste from the body, increases libido.
• Gamma-linoleic acid is one of the components of mother's milk and is used in the treatment of arthritis.
• Glutamic acid nourishes brain cells and helps develop mental abilities.
• Inositol takes an active part in the elimination of carcinogens, is necessary for liver function, maintaining hormonal balance and stabilizing cholesterol levels.
• Thiamine improves the functioning of the nervous system, helps cope with insomnia and shortness of breath.
• Tyrosine slows down the aging process and prevents the appearance of gray hair.
• Phycocyanin is a blue pigment found in this plant in the largest quantity. According to scientists, it can slow down the growth of cancer cells.
• Folic acid increases blood hemoglobin levels.
• Cystine is necessary for the functioning of the pancreas.

Beneficial properties of spirulina

The algae belongs to the genus of cyanobacteria. It is rich not only in nutrients, but also in vitamins. B2, B6 and B12 regulate cholesterol in the blood, normalize metabolism and take an active part in the process of blood creation.

Vitamins E and PP have a beneficial effect on the functioning of the digestive, nervous, cardiovascular and endocrine systems. Their content in spirulina is much higher than in meat foods. Algae is an excellent source of protein for vegetarians and contains a lot of easily digestible iron.

Spirulina - beneficial properties:

• antioxidant - high content of carotene, 10 times more than in carrots, contains unsaturated omega and amino acids;
• anti-inflammatory - stimulates regeneration processes, reduces the appearance of acne and dermatitis;
• cleansing - removes waste and toxins from the body, strengthens the immune system;
• anti-allergenic - helps get rid of allergic reactions to pollen and other types of plants.

What else can spirulina do for you? It is good for eye health and improves vision and memory. Algae speeds up metabolism, which promotes weight loss. It is a natural source of energy and an inhibitor of cancer cell growth.

Spirulina - what treats? It has good wound-healing properties and improves skin condition and prevents early aging. Algae can treat liver diseases - it increases its barrier mechanisms and cleanses it of toxins.

Spirulina restores intestinal microflora and is used in the treatment of myositis, osteochondrosis and arthritis. It stimulates growth processes in the body, so it is often necessary for children during adolescence.

Heart diseases can also be alleviated with the participation of this supplement - angina pectoris, atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Spirulina has been successfully used in the treatment of myopia and other vision problems.

Its use is indicated for hepatitis, chronic bronchitis and tuberculosis. But the most important merit of the plant is its ability to slow down the growth of cancer cells. Spirulina is prescribed after courses of radiotherapy and chemotherapy. It prevents the development of metastases and new malignant tumors.

Despite all the versatility and uniqueness of the plant, it is contraindicated for people with serious health problems and individual intolerance to its components. If you have serious stomach problems, blood pressure or kidney failure, you should consult your doctor about taking this supplement.

Spirulina for skin

Spirulina for skin beneficial due to its high content of gamma-linoleic acid. This is an effective measure to prevent acne and the aging process. It helps saturate the skin with nutrients, remove toxins from it and improve cellular metabolism, regeneration and renewal of the epidermis.

Spirulina for skin

The use of spirulina for the skin is possible at home. A simple algae mask will help cure acne, improve tone, and give a rejuvenating effect.

Pour 5 spirulina capsules with 30 ml of clean warm water and apply the mixture in a thin layer to the skin of the face. Leave for half an hour, then rinse with warm water. The course lasts one week. It can be repeated after 10 days. To prevent wrinkles, use the mask before bed, 2-3 times a week.

Spirulina for the stomach

Spirulina for the stomach is used as an auxiliary supplement for the treatment of diseases that are not in the acute stage. These are chronic hepatitis, cholecystitis, liver cirrhosis, gastritis and colitis, gastric ulcer and duodenal ulcer. The algae is indicated for resection and various digestive disorders.

Its use is due to the plant’s abilities - increasing appetite, reducing secretion, inhibiting pepsin activity and preventing the development of infections.

Spirulina does not burden the digestive system and contains a number of nutrients necessary for humans. This is a metabolite activator that acts at the cellular level and removes toxins from the body, promoting regular bowel cleansing.

seaweed- a good basis for a protein diet. It helps you lose weight and prevents you from overeating. If you take the supplement half an hour before meals, it will coat the stomach and create the effect of its fullness.

How to take spirulina tablets

This type of blue-green algae is used for preventive and medicinal purposes and has a wide range of applications. The answer to the question of how long to take spirulina depends on the purpose of the supplement.

The daily dose for prevention is 3 grams, the course lasts one month. During treatment, the dosage is increased to 5 grams; children and pregnant women are given no more than 2 grams of the drug per day. For constipation, the seaweed is drunk on an empty stomach with plenty of water, and for diarrhea, it is taken with meals.

Modern organic supplements are increasingly available in the form of powders and suspensions, so it is important to know how to take spirulina tablets.

In this form, the algae dissolves faster and is better absorbed by the body. Its prophylactic dose is 1 gram before meals, for medicinal purposes - 2 grams. The daily dose of the drug is prescribed by the doctor, depending on the nature of the disease and the individual characteristics of the patient.

How much iodine is in spirulina

Particular care is required when using spirulina for diseases of the endocrine system. This is a freshwater algae, not a seaweed, so the iodine content in it will be less than in the same kelp.

The daily iodine requirement for an adult is about 150 mcg. In 100g of dried plant, the substance ranges from 4.5-9 µg. Therefore, one cannot count on successful treatment of thyroid diseases. On the contrary, eating algae can only worsen the situation.

Spirulina in cosmetology

Spirulina for hair

As you know, spirulina has been widely used in cosmetology. It is included in various face and body creams, figure-correcting products and is used as a base for wraps and masks.

Algae has a beneficial effect on tissue trophism and smoothes wrinkles, contains essential salts, vitamins and minerals. It saturates the skin with amino acids and proteins, protects collagen and elastin at the cellular level. Spirulina is an integral component of SPA procedures and thalassotherapy.

Spirulina in cosmetology at home is used as masks for the face and hair, as a component of anti-cellulite wraps together with mud and clay.

Anti-loss mask, for brittle and dull hair. Distribute a small amount of live seaweed evenly onto washed hair and leave it on for 15 minutes. Then rinse with warm water. This will protect them from negative factors and make their color more saturated.

Nourishing face mask. Beat the egg white, add a teaspoon of cream, ground oat bran and different types of clay - pink, white and blue. Crush 3-4 spirulina capsules into powder and mix with the rest of the ingredients, add 1-2 tablespoons of infused green tea. Apply the mask to your face for about half an hour, then rinse with water and use a moisturizer. Make a mask every 2-3 days for a month.

How to drink spirulina to lose weight

Spirulina helps achieve good results in the fight against excess weight. It contains many vitamins and amino acids, but the main secret ingredient is polyunsaturated fatty enzymes. They prevent obesity and reduce the effects of toxins on the liver.

Blue-green algae lowers cholesterol, removes toxins and stabilizes metabolism, which also plays an important role in the process of losing weight. At the same time, it gives the body a complex of vitamins and microelements that it needs.

How to drink spirulina to lose weight? The answer to this question is quite simple. At the pharmacy you can purchase special capsules that guarantee weight loss when taken regularly for one month. With their help, you can correct your figure and get rid of extra pounds forever.

This will be facilitated by:

• stabilization of metabolic processes - metabolic disorders are considered one of the main causes of excess weight;
• cleansing the body of heavy metal salts - wastes and toxins interfere with the normal functioning of internal organs;
• reducing the amount of lipids and cholesterol in the blood - they slow down blood circulation and reduce hemoglobin.

Seaweed reduces hunger and is high in protein. When they enter the body, the active substances begin to act, enveloping the walls of the stomach. They create the effect of satiety, which leads to weight loss. At the same time, losing weight itself does not cause any harm to the body. You should take such tablets strictly in accordance with the instructions. They are not recommended for use by those who naturally have a large build.

How to spot fake spirulina

Like most popular herbal remedies, attempts are often made to replace the plant with other means or to counterfeit it. How to spot fake spirulina?

• The original does not contain dyes, flavors or preservatives.
• The only substance in the composition is crushed blue-green algae spirulina.
• Tablets or powder have no distinct odor or color.
• To protect yourself from scammers and low-quality products, pay for the product upon receipt if you order the supplement online.

Is spirulina safe for pregnant women?

But can spirulina be used for pregnant women? is determined by the doctor for each individual case. In most of them, the answer is yes.

The effect of the drug will protect against adverse factors and reduce the risk of many diseases.

• A large amount of iron will prevent anemia and normalize the functioning of the gastrointestinal tract.
• Proteins and calcium contribute to the development of the skeleton and the formation of the placenta.
• Vitamins and microelements will protect the immune system; they are completely absorbed one hundred percent.

When purchasing spirulina as a supplement for a favorable pregnancy, you should pay attention to its labeling. It must be one hundred percent organic.

The “father” of modern bodybuilding, Joe Weider, once said: “80% of success in bodybuilding is proper nutrition!”

Proper nutrition is one of the most important components of success in any sport. Performance during training and, ultimately, achieving results is all about proper nutrition. However, it is not possible to eat healthy and of high quality, since the products have long ceased to be natural. Even with a balanced diet, some valuable substances are not absorbed by the body due to chemical and thermal processing of foods, conservation, artificial food and flavor additives, and genetically modified products.

“A person is nourished not by what he eats, but by what he assimilates”

How to make nutrition more natural and natural?

Nature gave humanity an algae that concentrated everything needed in one cell.

Spirulina (Spirulina platensis) is a multicellular microalgae. It differs from many other algae in that it is not a typical plant. It is essentially a bacterial life form. The biochemical composition of the Spirulina cell is more consistent with the biochemical composition of the cell of an animal organism. Spirulina algae is a biofactory for the production of proteins, vitamins, microelements and other valuable substances that ensure the normal functioning of the body.

When playing sports:

When taken 1 hour before the start of exercise, it increases physical endurance

When taken after training (1 hour after physical activity) promotes faster recovery

When taking Spirulina in combination with other sports nutrition, the efficiency of absorption of the valuable components of the latter increases

Spirulina supplies the body with natural and easily digestible minerals, proteins and vitamins

According to available data, Spirulina has significant advantages over Soy:

3.5 times more energetically efficient;

Provides 20 times more protein.

Spirulina normalizes the function of the gastrointestinal tract, including intestinal microflora, promotes more complete absorption of valuable components of sports nutrition: proteins, amino acids, minerals, etc.

If you eat a lot of protein foods, but your digestive system is disturbed, then it is not fully absorbed, does not bring benefits, but on the contrary causes harm, needlessly overloading the gastrointestinal tract and wasting energy that would be useful for another workout. The better the valuable substances of sports nutrition are absorbed, the higher the effectiveness of training.

Spirulina eliminates the lack of oxygen in the body (hypoxia) during sports activities, since Spirulina is the most effective oxygen-generating product

Over 90% of the body's energy comes from oxygen, and the more we get, the more energy we will have. Through the mucous membrane of the stomach, oxygen enters the body more intensively than through the lungs. This means that it is more accessible to working muscles. The result is an increase in overall physical and strength endurance, and the opening of a “second wind.” Less time will be required for recovery between approaches (sets) of exercises. Consuming Spirulina will allow you to better physically “approach” the superset and make it easier to endure long-term aerobic exercise (running, etc.).

Spirulina preserves and retains protein in the muscles, preventing its destruction

Sports activity is stress for the body, which, in turn, causes the formation of free radicals. Spirulina is a powerful antioxidant that prevents the destruction of protein by free radicals and the “eating” of protein by the body’s own after intense exercise.

Spirulina speeds up metabolism

By restoring the normal course of biochemical processes in the body, Spirulina protects against excess weight and normalizes fat metabolism. The result is normalization of body weight without loss of strength, and a gradual decrease in the amount of body fat. And this is a serious alternative to means that artificially burn fat, blocking the flow of calories, which harms the body. Being a powerful oxygen generator, Spirulina further accelerates metabolism.

Spirulina removes “chemicals” from the body, as it is a powerful natural detoxifier

Having a pronounced effect of removing toxins, waste, heavy metal salts, radionuclides from the body, Spirulina reduces the burden of adverse environmental factors and restores internal strength and health.

Spirulina is a non-toxic blue-green algae. It is a source of phycocyanobilin. Preliminary evidence suggests that spirulina is surprisingly powerful in protecting the brain and reducing fatty liver.

general information

Spirulina is a blue-green algae. It is easily produced and is a non-toxic species of Arthrospira bacteria. Spirulina is often used as a vegan source of protein and vitamin B12. It contains 55-70% protein, but studies have shown that it is not a good source of vitamin B12, as it is poorly absorbed after consumption. Human data suggests that spirulina may help improve lipid and glucose metabolism, while reducing liver fat and protecting the heart. Animal studies are promising, as spirulina has shown similar effectiveness to drugs that treat neurological disorders. These effects also extend to arthritis and immunity. Spirulina includes several active components. The main ingredient is called phycocyanobilin, which makes up 1% of spirulina. This compound mimics the bilirubin compound in the body in order to inhibit an enzyme complex called nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) oxidase. By inhibiting NADPH oxidase, spirulina provides powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. The neurological effects of spirulina require more human studies to prove them. Based on animal data, spirulina appears to be a promising antioxidant and metabolic disorder supplement.

Interesting to note:

Allergic reactions have been reported with spirulina consumption, although the overall frequency or cross-sensitivity is not known.

Preliminary data suggested decreased activity of the enzymes CYP2C6, CYP1A2 (aromatase), and CYP2E1.

The same data were found for positive regulation (increased activity) in relation to CYP2B1 and CYP3A1.

Represents:

Watery substance;

Food product.

On a note!

Some patients may experience an allergic reaction to spirulina (rare).

May interact with drug metabolism enzymes.

Spirulina: instructions for use

The standard dosage of spirulina varies between 1-3 g. Dosages up to 10 g have been used effectively in studies. Spirulina contains about 20% C-phycocyanin by weight and about 1% phycocyanobilin by weight. The dosage range for 200 mg C-phycocyanin per kg body weight (1 g spirulina per kg body weight) in rats is approximately:

10.9 g for a person weighing 68 kg;

14.5 g for a person weighing 90 kg;

18.2 g for a person weighing 113 kg.

Further research is needed to determine whether spirulina should be taken only once a day, in smaller dosages, or several times a day. It is not recommended to exceed the above maximum dosage as it is unknown what benefits may be provided at these levels.

Sources and composition

Sources

Spirulina is a collective term that defines a mixture of two bacteria, namely Arthospira Platensis and Arthospira Maxima. Sometimes these bacteria are also called Spirulina platensis and Spirulina maxima, respectively. The common name "spirulina" comes from the word "spiral", which is a morphological reference to the spiral form (although the linear form of Arthospira is also noted). Spirulina is also often called blue-green algae due to its color and sources. From a nutritional standpoint, spirulina is technically a vegan source of complete protein, containing 70% protein by weight, although some studies have found spirulina to be as low as 55% protein. The composition of amino acids in spirulina is complete (provides a sufficient amount of all essential amino acids), but there is a relatively low content of cysteine, methionine and lysine when compared with products of animal origin. Spirulina is a term that defines two bacteria of the species Arthospira, which are non-toxic and protein-rich foods.

Compound

Spirulina contains:

Spirulina appears to be a protein-rich food, although the beneficial effects of spirulina occur at much lower dosages compared to other foods; this beneficial effect has nothing to do with calories (as dosages range from 1 to 3 g per day). Contains a high proportion of proteins (55-70%), which are complete vegan proteins.

Structure and properties

The main active ingredient of spirulina is the already discussed phycocyanobilin proteins, of which C-phycocyanin is most often presented as a meta-component and consists of small protein components, for example, phycocyanibilin. These structures resemble the endogenous bilirubin molecule in the body. Biline groups also represent a source of antioxidant effects of phycocyanobilin proteins. Most of the antioxidant effects of spirulina itself (excluding in vivo enzymatic interactions) are mediated by the phycocyanin component, as isolating the various fragments and comparing them to each other on a mass basis has shown that the antioxidant potential of the extract correlates well with the phycocyanin component. Spirulina includes 55-70% of proteins of the total mass, which are divided into three “meta” proteins (allophycocyanin, C-phycocyanin and phycoerythrin). C-phycocyanin makes up 20% of the total mass, including the main biologically active component phycocyanobilin, which makes up 1% of the total mass of spirulina. Phycocyanobilin can be broken down to phycocyanorubin by the enzyme biliverdin reductase. Carbohydrate polysaccharides, carotenoids and gamma-linoleic acid may also be biologically active, but they are not the main biologically active substances.

Gilbert's syndrome

Gilbert's syndrome (GS) is an inherited hyperbilirubinemia (high serum bilirubin levels; greater than 17 µmol per L) that is secondary to a decrease in the activity of the enzyme bilirubin glucuronosyltransferase by approximately 20% of baseline activity. It is not the only form of hyperbilirubinemia, but is an autosomal recessive disorder affecting 3-12% of the population. Although GS is a syndrome, it is considered medically benign because elevated bilirubin levels appear to protect against diseases of aging due to the antioxidant properties of bile acids; People with GS die from these diseases at half the rate of others (24 deaths per 10,000 people with GS compared with 50 deaths per 10,000 other people in the 9-year study). Spirulina is thought to mimic SF, and both exhibit antioxidant properties by inhibiting NADPH oxidase. Interestingly, when comparing people with GS and ordinary people (over a 9-year period), it was found that people with GS had a significantly lower BMI (4.3% lower), a lower risk of cardiovascular disease (43%), diabetes, mental disorders (11.6% compared to 24.2%). Gilbert's syndrome (GS) is a genetic disorder characterized by higher levels of bilirubin, but due to the antioxidant properties of bilirubin, the syndrome is associated with positive effects on overall health and lower risks of death. Spirulina inhibits the same enzyme as bilirubin, producing antioxidant effects, and Gilbert's syndrome is thought to have similar beneficial effects to spirulina.

Pharmacology

Mineral detoxification

Cyanobacteria, as a rule, accumulate (biological sorbent) heavy minerals ex vivo due to binding during ion exchange; when applied directly to tissues with accumulated heavy metals, it can significantly reduce the toxicity of heavy metals (100 μg of hexane spirulina extract removes 89.7% of arsenic, which has been shown repeatedly); biologically active substances in the hexane extract are more powerful than in the alcohol extract. Spirulina (250-500 mg/kg body weight) has been shown to be effective in preventing mineral toxicity occurring in fetal fluoride-fed pregnant rats; There is a decrease in the accumulation of lead in the nervous tissue of rat pups from 753-828% with basic measurements to 379-421% with a 2% share of spirulina in the diet. Protective effects on the fetus of pregnant rats have also been observed with cadmium. In male rats, 300 mg/kg body weight can attenuate mercury accumulation in the testes (which contributes in part to the antioxidant effects), and protection from mercury has also been found in the kidneys (using 800 mg/kg spirulina in mice). Other species of cyanobacteria, namely spirulina fusiformis (also a source of C-phycocyanin), also appear to have protective effects against mercury by reducing serum biomarkers of mercury toxicity (as is the case with spirulina itself). Spirulina is one of the few molecules that the body perceives as supporting the “detoxification” of heavy metals; demonstrates effectiveness in animals against a wide range of minerals, including cadmium and mercury; is safe for pregnant rats while reducing the effects of mineral toxicity in fetal rats. Compared with other agents, spirulina (at 2% of the diet) was approximately twice as effective as 5% dandelion extract in reducing lead accumulation in rat pups, and comparing 300 mg spirulina per kg body weight with 400 mg ginseng per kg body weight in Regarding cadmium-induced testicular toxicity, the effects were similar across the board, with only spirulina increasing superoxide dismutase to a greater extent, which was similar in effectiveness to Liv-52 (an Ayurvedic drug) in reducing cadmium and lead toxicity, although they were not additive. Compared to other agents that may reduce biochemical damage from excess heavy metals, spirulina appears to be a more effective solution than other drugs. One blind intervention using spirulina (250 mg) and zinc (2 mg) was able to reduce arsenic levels in the body after people were exposed to arsenic through drinking water. People living in India who consumed arsenic from their water had a filter installed and were then divided into a placebo group and a group that took spirulina; after 2 weeks of the 14-week study, urinary arsenic levels were 72.1+/-14.5 and 78.4+/-19.1 mcg per L for placebo and spirulina, respectively, a decrease of 72.4-74.5 % after filter installation in both groups, increasing to 138+/-43.6 mcg per L in the spirulina group after 4 weeks. Hair arsenic levels were initially 3.08+/-1.29 and 3.27+/-1.16 mcg/year, decreasing by 3% in the placebo group and by 47.1% in the spirulina group. These mineral detoxification effects have been confirmed in people exposed to arsenic in some way.

Phase I enzyme interactions

Oral administration of spirulina to rats over a five-week course was able to suppress CYP2C6 enzyme activity in a manner that was not associated with a decrease in mRNA or protein levels. CYP1A2 and CYP2E1 are also downregulated, but this is associated with a decrease in mRNA and protein levels. Spirulina, over a five-week course in rats, appeared to activate the mRNA and protein expression (as well as the overall activity) of the enzymes CYP2B1 and CYP3A1. Spirulina appears to be able to modify some proteins during the first stage of metabolism.

Drug interactions

The protein C-phycocyanin appears to be able to inhibit the multidrug-resistant receptor (MDR1) in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Although this study found an IC50 of 50 μM for C-phycocyanin and 5 μM for doxorubicin, in the presence of 25 μM C-phycocyanin, the IC50 of doxorubicin improved fivefold to 1 μM, reducing overall proliferation. C-phycocyanin appeared to enter the cell (due to fluorescence), inhibiting MDR1 at the transcriptional and translational levels, which contributed to an increase in the cellular accumulation of doxorubicin and a decrease in the mRNA and protein content of MDR1. The mechanisms appear to be mixed by inhibition of COX2, as it decreased PGE2 levels (which increase MDR1), which may be secondary to a decrease in NF-kB and AP-1 activity through inhibition of NADPH oxidase (antioxidant effects) in non-cancerous tissues where regular macrophages were treated with the pro-oxidant 2-acetylaminofluorene. Other studies examining the combination of doxorubicin and C-phycocyanin have shown that the latter can prevent the cardiotoxicity of the former without inhibiting its apoptotic effects on cancer cells in the ovary. Spirulina may aid the kinetics of some anticancer drugs through mixed antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms, as oxidation tends to increase the amount of the MDR1 receptor, which enhances the drug's effects at the cellular level, and phycocyanin prevents this release.

Impact on the body

Neurology

Mechanisms

Spirulina appears to be a complex NADP inhibitor, as is bilirubin (a heme catabolite that is an endogenous NADP inhibitor; phycocyanobilin from spirulina has a similar structure and is broken down to phycocyanorubin by the same enzyme, biliverdin reductase). In addition to inhibition, spirulina has been implicated in reducing the expression of complex NADP (22-34% reduction in the expression of p22phox subunits of NADPH oxidase). The underlying mechanisms of action of spirulina as an NADPH oxidase inhibitor and silencing agent appear to play a role in neuroscience. The chemokine CX3C receptor 1 (several names including fractalkine, CX3CR1 and GPR13) was noted to be doubled in rat microglia compared to placebo. It is thought that this may play a role when the receptor is activated, reducing the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1beta and TNF-alpha); there is also a reduction in microglial activation and Parkinson's disease pathology. Spirulina can increase the activity of the CX3CR1 receptor, and this occurs by itself through a mechanism that is independent of NADPH oxidase inhibition.

Neuroprotection and cognitive impairment

Oral supplementation of 100 mg/kg C-phycocyanin in rats is associated with protection against kainate-induced neurotoxicity in the rat hippocampus, which significantly reduces microglial and astrocyte activation when measured one week after kainate injections. These findings may be secondary to kainate-induced toxicity, which is mediated through pro-oxidative activation of NADPH oxidase, membrane translocation, and inhibitory activation of the C-phycocyanin component, phycocyanobilin, of this complex. Spirulina appears to be neuroprotective against excitotoxicity and possibly secondary to NADPH oxidase inhibition. Neuroprotection has also been observed in response to MPTP (Parkinson's disease-mimicking toxin) injections, where 150-200 mg oral spirulina per kg body weight significantly attenuated dopaminergic losses in response to the toxin, and a similar dopaminergic toxin (6-ODHA or 6-hydroxydopa ) also reduced its neurotoxicity over a 28-day course of 0.01% spirulina in the diet, outperforming 2% blueberries (a source of anthocyanins) for protection against neurodegeneration when injected 1 week after injection (reversing the trend after 4 weeks). The toxic response to MPTP also appears to be mediated through complex activation of NADP as a toxic response to 6-hydroxydopamine, although fractalkine induction also has protective effects against 6-hydroxydopamine. With respect to dopaminergic (dopamine-related) toxins, spirulina appears to provide potent protection at reasonable oral doses through a dual mechanism (fractalkine induction and NADPH oxidase inhibition). Spirulina appears to show great promise in reducing the risk of developing Parkinson's disease through these effects. Haloperidol-induced symptoms of tardive dyskinesia in rats were also attenuated by 180 mg/kg of spirulina per day and continued haloperidol injections; A dosage of 45 mg of spirulina injections per kg of body weight is also effective when haloperidol injections are first discontinued. Haloperidol has been noted to function through excess oxidation, which occurs through the activation of NADPH oxidase, which is related to the main mechanism of action of spirulina. The toxicity of haloperidol is also protected from spirulina due to inhibition of NADPH oxidase. Oral consumption of spirulina at a dosage of 45-180 mg per kg of body weight during the week before ischemia/reperfusion (experimental stroke) is able to provide a dose-dependent protective effect, with the highest dose halving the size of the infarct, completely normalizing parameters of fat oxidation and antioxidant enzymes. These protective effects were observed when spirulina was consumed at 0.33% of the diet, where it was more effective than similar products (2% blueberries as an anthocyanin source); consuming 200 mg of isolated C-phycocyanin per kg body weight for a week before ischemia/reperfusion also confirmed an absolute reduction in fat oxidation and infarct size of up to 4.3% in relation to ischemia (50 mg per kg body weight reduced infarct size by 17.2% , also being highly effective), normalizing neurological parameters after surgery when measured after 24 hours. Spirulina may have a protective effect against stroke, with 200 mg of isolated C-phycocyanin per kg body weight providing the greatest protection against stroke. These remarkable protective effects must be replicated in higher mammals before conclusions can be drawn, but the evidence is already incredibly promising. Iron neurotoxicity (via pro-oxidation) has also been demonstrated to be attenuated by exposure to the spirulina component C-phycocyanin in the SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cell line, and using LDH leak as an indicator of cell death showed that phycocyanin was able to reduce cell death from 69,10 +/-2.14% (with iron supplementation) to 28.70+/-2.56% at a dosage of 500 mg per ml. 1000 µg of spirulina per ml (very high concentration) was able to induce cytotoxicity on its own in this study. This mechanism may not be related to NADPH oxidase inhibition, since spirulina is known to be a mineral chelator. Spirulina appears to have neuroprotective effects against mineral toxicity, which may not be due to NADPH oxidase inhibition, since spirulina is an effective mineral chelator (see section on pharmacology and mineral detoxification). Due to the above-mentioned neuroprotective properties associated with NADP, it is assumed that this enzyme plays a key role in inflammatory and oxidative neurodegenerative disorders.

Spirulina has been found to modestly increase neuronal density (a measure of neurogenesis) at 0.1% of the diet, despite infection with alpha-synuclein, a component of protein aggregates seen in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases and sometimes used as an investigational toxin in injections. Protection (as assessed by TH and NeuN immunostaining) appeared to be significant in the substantia nigra, which is the region of the brain where neurodegeneration is considered a causative factor in Parkinson's disease. Spirulina has also been tested ex vivo for blocking the synthesis of beta-amyloid protein aggregates, and spirulina (EC50 of 3.76 μg per ml) outperformed all food extracts tested, including ginger (36.8 μg per ml), cinnamon (47, 9 µg per ml), blueberry (160.6 µg per ml) and turmeric (168 µg per ml, curcumin studied), giving way to some isolated molecules, such as 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl- b-D-glucopyranose (PGG) from peony (2.7 nm), EGCG (green tea catechins) at 10.9 nm, resveratrol at 40.6 nm and S-diclofenac at 10 nm as a comparator. One study noted that beta-amyloid pigmentation (in aged but not diseased SAMP8 rats) was restored to levels in young rats at 50-200 mg/kg body weight, with 200 mg/kg body weight being more effective in relation to reducing fat oxidation and improving catalase activity. Microglial activation is thought to be a mechanism whereby OX-6 staining results in decreased microglial activation with spirulina consumption, which is reduced by an alpha-synuclein-induced neurotoxicity mechanism that is dependent on NADPH oxidase activation. This prevention of microglial activation has been studied down to the phycocyanobilin component in vitro, which reached absolute levels at 400 mg/kg body weight in rats (human dosage is 64 mg/kg body weight). Spirulina appears to have mechanisms to prevent the accumulation of beta-amyloid pigmentation and alpha-synuclein (observed ex vivo); it is able to protect these proteins from the occurrence of inflammatory and neurotoxic effects (confirmed in rats during oral administration). Due to this, spirulina can be used in the treatment and prevention of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, however, this statement requires additional research, since everything looks very promising in animals. Spirulina at low dosages (5 mg in rats) has been noted to attenuate the age-related increase in TNF-alpha, normalizing aging-related memory deficits as assessed by the accelerated aging SAMP8 strain in mice, where activity and body weight during consumption of 50-200 mg per kg of body weight were normalized using the example of normal mice. Reduced levels of neurodegeneration may also relate to healthy cognitive aging, and by reducing neurodegeneration, subsequent use of spirulina may improve cognitive performance in older adults.

Neurogenesis

Spirulina, at 0.1% of the rat diet, may protect stem cells in the brain from decreased proliferation due to inflammation (as assessed by LPS injection, likely due to fractalkine induction or NADPH inhibition); in vitro, increased stem cell proliferation was demonstrated at 0.62 ng per ml and 125 ng per ml. The promotion of stem cell neurogenesis appears to be secondary to the reduction of the inhibitory effects of TNF-alpha on proliferation, possibly due to the induction of fractalkine. Other studies show some increase in neuronal density over time, including a non-significant trend to increase with 0.1% spirulina in the diet over a four-month course (in rats), despite neurotoxic alpha-synuclein infection (in NeuN stem cells there is a decrease in TH staining ). Limited evidence suggests that spirulina may promote neural regeneration through stem cells, which is secondary to reducing inflammation in the brain (this protects normal rates of regeneration); this was demonstrated in vivo with 0.1% of the diet in rats (it is possible that the same effect would be observed in humans).

Motor neurons

The reduction in rates of neurodegeneration seen with spirulina (secondary to the suppression of glial cell activation in response to toxic stress) has been noted to improve motor function as assessed by the sciatic functional index (400 mg/kg is superior to that observed with 800 mg/kg). bodies of rats); Another study using mice affected by amyotrophic sclerosis (ALS, exemplified in mice by the SOD1 mouse strain) found that a ten-week course of 0.1% spirulina in the total diet was able to significantly reduce the rate of motor neuron breakdown when compared to controls. measurements. These results were found to be preliminary and require replication. Reduced rates of neurodegeneration may apply to motor neurons, which may help promote functional and muscle control during aging and various diseases (may underlie the power output effects that have been noted with spirulina). This statement requires additional research.

Depression

At least one study on spirulina was conducted using forced swim testing in rats, although this study used hydrolyzed malted barley spirulina. Spirulina and hydrolyzed spirulina were both more effective than baseline measurements for antidepressant properties in the forced swim test, but the control drug, 10 mg fluoxetine per kg body weight, was significantly more effective than spirulina. Preliminary evidence suggests that spirulina may have antidepressant effects, but they are likely to be quite weak.

Cardiovascular diseases

Absorption

Spirulina has greater bile acid binding properties than casein (the comparator) and appears to reduce the solubility of cholesterol in micelles. Ex vivo, cholesterol uptake in Caco-2 cells appears to be reduced by spirulina consumption; consuming spirulina at 10% of the diet for 10 days in rats on a high-cholesterol diet did not affect liver cholesterol levels but increased fecal cholesterol excretion by 20.8-23%. Spirulina appears to increase the amount of cholesterol excreted in the feces, which is secondary to preventing its absorption in the intestines. This appears to have a moderate degree of potency, which is not optimal, but is still better than many other supplements. A study in young and relatively healthy people seemed to show that the postprandial spike in triglycerides after eating a fatty meal was attenuated by 5 g of spirulina (by up to 42% at 4.5 hours after eating). This reduction in triglycerides appears to be greater in younger than in older adults; There is a 30% decrease in AUC in adolescents aged 10-12 years; in adolescents over 13 years of age, no beneficial effect in this regard was identified. These appear to be mechanisms of inhibition of triglyceride absorption, but there is a dependence on the age of the subjects, and preliminary data show some unreliability of such conclusions.

Lipoproteins and triglycerides

Using animals as an example, it was found that the consumption of 0.33 mg of spirulina per kg of body weight in rats with fructose-induced metabolic syndrome can reduce the levels of “bad” cholesterol by 79%, total cholesterol by 33-36% and VLDL by 23%, increasing the level of “ good cholesterol by 55%; Effectiveness was also observed when the effect of glucose was not stopped, although the beneficial effect was weakened by 39% for “bad” cholesterol, by 28% for VLDL, and by 43% for “good” cholesterol; in relation to the comparator (metmorphine at a dosage of 500 mg per kg of body weight), spirulina showed itself to be slightly weaker. This beneficial effect is also observed in relatively healthy mice fed a high-cholesterol diet; after 10 days of supplementation, the level of “good” cholesterol increased by 26%, while “bad” cholesterol and VLDL decreased by 21%, and total cholesterol did not change its levels. Further consumption (5% in the diet of mice with type I diabetes for 30 days) was noted to help normalize “bad” and “good” cholesterol. These improvements are thought to be secondary to the liver (using fructose-based obesity as the model studied); These beneficial effects of spirulina are additive with exercise. The aforementioned fructose-based study also showed a 39-51% reduction in triglycerides (reduced to 28-34% with long-term consumption of fructose drinks), similar to metmorphine (43%); there was no additive effect of physical activity. One study suggested that the reduction of bad cholesterol was dependent on triglycerides, but not good cholesterol, although some other trials suggested the opposite. In animals, spirulina appears to be very effective at lowering VLDL and bad cholesterol levels, and also quite impressively increasing good cholesterol levels, with beneficial effects on triglycerides. Although preliminary data currently suggests its effectiveness is similar to metformin, this factor may depend on the status of fatty liver disease. In humans, use of 8 g for four months (based on relatively healthy Koreans aged 60-87 years) showed a reduction in total and bad cholesterol by 7.9% and 11.5% in women, but all cardiometabolic indicators in men ("good" cholesterol and triglycerides) were not significantly affected, although there was an increase in superoxide dismutase activity and a decrease in IL-2 TBARS. Another study of older adults with hypercholesterolemia (40-60 years old; consuming 4 g of spirulina for three months) showed a halving of bad cholesterol and a small but significant increase in good cholesterol; A lower dosage (1 g of spirulina per day for 12 weeks) in patients with dyslipidemia showed a decrease in triglycerides (by 16.3%), “bad” cholesterol (by 10.1%) and total cholesterol (by 8.9%). ) with a slight tendency towards an increase in “good” cholesterol (by 3.5%). Other studies, including one using open labeling of the substances used, in relatively healthy adults showed a 15% increase in good cholesterol when consuming 4,500 mg of spirulina for six weeks, while total cholesterol and bad cholesterol decreased (by 16.6% and 10%), there is also a decrease in triglycerides (by 24%); A study in healthy, active young adults consuming 5g for 15 days showed a 20.2% reduction in triglycerides, independent of changes in total and good cholesterol levels. Another study showed positive changes without providing any quantitative data. The consumption of 1000 mg of spirulina for one month by young people with nephrotic syndrome (a kidney disorder characterized by increased lipids in the blood) showed a decrease in total cholesterol (by 35.5%), "bad" cholesterol (by 41.9%), VLDL (by 29.7%) and a slight decrease in the level of “good” cholesterol (by 14.8%; however, the ratio improved, nevertheless). Spirulina appears to improve lipoprotein profiles in humans when taken at standard dosages, and although the evidence is not strong to draw definitive conclusions, spirulina does seem to be quite effective in improving cardiometabolic risk factors when they are initially poor (eg, in people who are already ill). ).

Heart tissue

C-phycocyanin forms a fragment of spirulina protein within 48 hours; There is a decrease in cardiomyocyte death induced by doxorubin with the use of C-phycocyanin at a dosage of 10 μg per ml in an isolated state, which is more effective than a fivefold (50 μg per ml) concentration of spirulina, being secondary to a decrease in doxorubicin- induced oxidation and subsequent mitochondrial damage. Interestingly, the antitumor activity of doxorubicin (for ovarian cancer) was not inhibited when using the same concentrations of C-phycocyanin and spirulina, and these results suggest a lack of inhibition, which was confirmed in repeated trials. These protective effects were observed in vivo in rats fed spirulina at 250 mg/kg body weight (moderate dose), where mortality from doxorubicin was 53% initially, decreasing to 26% with spirulina. Another indirect mechanism of cardioprotection may be based on the antioxidant effects of spirulina, since the antioxidant effects of phycocyanin are involved in reducing the formation of superoxide radicals in cardiac tissue by 46-76% in rodents when consuming a spirulina-saturated aqueous extract. Spirulina may have cardioprotective effects in terms of the heart tissue itself.

Platelets

Spirulina appears to inhibit platelet aggregation through its C-phycocyanin component, as concentrations of 0.5-1 nM (very low) appear to inhibit collagen and U46619 induced aggregation with IC50 values ​​of 4 and 7.5 nm; these low dosages were ineffective in potently inhibiting thrombin and arachidonic acid-induced blood clotting; the higher concentration of 2 µM was able to inhibit the aggregation of these two agents by 78% and 92%, respectively. A later study suggested that the IC50 of AA-induced aggregation was 10 μg per ml, and the inhibition process was reversible, with mechanisms found to be mediated by preventing platelet calcium release, possibly related to preventing thromboxane A2 formation.

Blood pressure and blood flow

Mechanistically, spirulina appears to promote the expression of antihypertensive peptides in fragment proteins that inhibit the ACE enzyme. In spirulina, this peptide is an isoleucine-glycine-proline chain, also called IQP. IQP has an IC50 of 5.77+/-0.09 µmol/L, being a non-competitive inhibitor, and either 10 mg/kg injection or weekly treatment using 10 mg/kg body weight in rats with this peptide in an isolated state may differ slightly in effectiveness from the same dosage (10 mg per kg body weight) of captopril, an ACE inhibitory drug. A study in obese rats fed a 5% spirulina diet showed that when induced by phenylephrine (hypertension induction), the blood vessels were more relaxed than in normal rats. These beneficial effects are seen in fructose-induced obesity (corresponding to phenylephrine-induced constriction); at the same time, there is a decrease in vasomotor reactivity to levels noted in thin individuals; all of this was replicated using an ethanol extract of spirulina. A subsequent study examining the mechanisms of the dose-dependent increase in the effects of spirulina, where the reduction of aortic rings with endothelium was 23.88+/-6.6% of normal when using 1 mg of spirulina per ml in vitro measurements, and without endothelium decreased to 67.14 +/-15.45%. Incubation with indomethacin (a selective COX inhibitor) and L-NAME again reduced the ability of spirulina to prevent aortic ring constriction, and the study authors concluded that spirulina increased the production or release of nitric oxide from the endothelium of phenylephrine-induced aortic rings. This appears to be mediated by cyclooxygenase (COX1 in particular), since inhibition with indomethacin abolished this effect; but, nevertheless, the fact of the release of sodium oxide with the participation of spirulina is noted. In rats, spirulina appeared to reliably lower blood pressure, possibly through its ACE-inhibiting peptides, but other mechanisms may play a role in reducing blood vessel contractility. In humans, a decrease in blood pressure was noted after 4 weeks of treatment based on the consumption of 4.5 g of spirulina; this study is not satisfactory for those with hypertension, but it appears that many subjects were already considered hypertensive to begin with; exact measurements are not provided.

Glucose metabolism

Mechanisms

Possible mechanisms of interaction between spirulina and glucose metabolism are mediated through the action of complex NADP oxidase inhibition, where NADP oxidase mediates lipotoxicity of pancreatic beta cells (which secrete insulin). Secondary to the inhibition of NADP, which links the toxic response to the destruction of pancreatic beta cells, spirulina is thought to be able to prevent toxin-induced beta cell destruction, which is implicated in the etiology of diabetes.

Diabetes risk

Consumption of spirulina (10 mg per kg body weight) for 30 days was able to reduce blood glucose levels increased by alloxan (beta cell toxin) from 250 mg per dL to 160.45 ml per dL (64% of the baseline level, 183% of the control measurement), and pre-load with isolated phycocyanin (100-200 mg per kg body weight) for 2 weeks before and 4 weeks after alloxan contribute to the static normalization of blood glucose levels (on the 28th day there is less effectiveness compared to the first week after alloxan injections). Other studies note that an average of 0.33 g per kg of spirulina per kg body weight in fructose-fed rats for 30 days reduced subsequent glucose levels by 54-60% (without dose-response), which was as effective as taking metmorphine in dosage of 500 mg per kg body weight (46%). In KKAy mice (genetically overweight, hyperglycemic, and insulin resistant) fed 100 mg phycocyanin per kg body weight for 3 weeks and then subjected to an oral glucose tolerance test, showed a 51% reduction in glucose excursions after phycocyanin treatment; Fasting glucose levels decreased and insulin sensitivity improved, and phycocyanin was more effective than 2 mg pioglitazone per kg body weight. In the case of diabetes (caused by toxins, diet or genetics), spirulina appears to have clear protective and rehabilitative properties. Some data in rats suggest a decrease in glucose levels in otherwise healthy rats (from 87.56 to 74.80 mg per dL; a 14.6% decrease) that is associated with an increase in serum insulin, although other studies have not shown such a decrease. There is mixed animal data assessing whether spirulina does or does not affect blood glucose levels in relatively healthy subjects.

Insulin resistance

A study of 25 people with type II diabetes aged 67.2+/-11.5 years who took 2g of spirulina every day for 2 months while maintaining their usual diet and exercise levels found that fasting blood glucose levels decreased by 88% compared to control measurements, and glucose levels after meals decreased by 92% compared to baseline data. While HbA1c remained relatively stable at 8.7+/-1.5 at baseline, it dropped from 9.0 to 8.0 after 2 months of 2g spirulina; this study also noted a modest 1.4% increase in good cholesterol and a 13% decrease in triglycerides, with a slight trend toward improvements in bad cholesterol and VLDL. Spirulina has also shown promise as an adjunctive therapy. HIV is associated with insulin resistance (and other disorders) with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), and at least one study has examined the effectiveness of spirulina as an adjuvant drug in reducing insulin resistance. In these people with insulin resistance, consumption of 19 g of spirulina (powder) for 2 months was associated with an increase in glucose disposition (-2.63% per minute compared with -1.68 per minute in control measurements) and improvement in glucose sensitivity. insulin by 224.7% when consuming spirulina and by 60% with initial measurements. These beneficial effects are noted to affect all subjects experiencing resistance. This study noted lower adherence to spirulina therapy due to the taste that was not masked, resulting in a 65% reduction in pill use. This study ultimately found that spirulina, compared with soybeans (a control food), was 1.45 times more effective at improving insulin sensitivity. Both studies noted improvements in glycemic profiles, although one measured fasting glucose and HbA1c and the other measured insulin sensitivity.

Adjuvant therapy

At least one animal study has suggested that rosiglitazone-induced bone loss (reported in humans in observational studies) may be attenuated by spirulina supplementation, where 500 mg/kg spirulina plus 10 mg/kg rosiglitazone was not significant. was superior to isolated rosiglitazone in reducing blood glucose and body weight and attenuating bone loss, although it was not completely prevented. Spirulina alone was only half as effective as rosiglitazone in lowering blood glucose levels.

Obesity and fat mass

Mechanisms

In mice with metabolic syndrome, spirulina was noted to reduce the infiltration of adipose tissue macrophages (visceral fat macrophages tend to accumulate themselves, producing inflammatory cytokines that may aggravate the symptoms of metabolic syndrome), which appears to be a consequence of inhibition NADP oxidases. Secondary to the inhibition of NADPH oxidase and the suppression of macrophage accumulation in body fat, spirulina may play a role in enhancing fat loss in people with metabolic syndrome. This mechanism is rehabilitative and has nothing to do with relatively healthy people.

Interventions

Supplementation of 100 mg phycocyanin per kg body weight has been noted to reduce body weight in KKAy mice (genetically overweight, hyperglycemic, and insulin resistant), which is associated with decreased food intake over 21 days. It is also noted that during the consumption of spirulina (mice with metabolic syndrome), body weight decreased by 7.1% compared to control measurements (but still 41% heavier than healthy individuals). In genetically obese rodents, spirulina appears to have a small weight-loss effect. Apparently the drug is not very effective in this regard.

Inflammation and immunology

Mechanisms

Brown's lipoproteins, namely lipoproteins found in bacterial cell walls, may mediate the immunological aspects of spirulina. One study identified the modified amino acid 2,3-dihydroxypropylcysteine ​​by HPLC indicating the presence of Brown proteins, while the mechanisms of spirulina-mediated immune potentiation appear to be mediated through TLR2 receptors, whose lipoproteins are agonists that mediate biological credibility. TLR2 appeared to mediate the effects of spirulina, as cells expressing TRL2 showed NF-kB activation in response to spirulina; this was not found for MD-2 and TRL4, although this study is associated with the effects found on polysaccharides. Inhibition of NF-kB has been noted to occur in macrophages and splenocytes with 100 mg of fat extract per ml. Polysaccharides are known to activate the immune system (this process is similar to ginseng and Ganoderma lacquer); such polysaccharides are called immulina or immolina, which can cause confusion since these names are brand names for spirulina supplements. These polysaccharides, at concentrations between 1 ng per ml and 100 μg per ml, increased the mRNA levels of various chemokines tested (IL-8, MCP-1, MIP-1a, IP-10), and a dose of 1 ng per ml was found to induce TNF-alpha mRNA, and 100 ng per ml induced IL-1beta; the induction of these mNAs was lower than LPS, and immolina did not affect cell viability or differentiation. Some mechanisms associated with the immune system are mediated by compounds that act as ligands on immune cell receptors, activating those cells. The need for only small concentrations suggests that these mechanisms are active in vivo. Inverse to the pro-inflammatory aspects described above, C-phycocyanin biliprotein acts as a selective COX2 inhibitor (which has been linked to some of its beneficial effects against colon cancer), and incubation of activated macrophages (via LPS) with C-phycocyanin can lead to apoptosis macrophages due to inhibition of COX2 (which is caused by LPS). This inhibitory potential of C-phycocyanin is active at an IC50 value of 180 nM, technically inhibiting COX1, however, at an IC50 value of 4.47 μM or higher, COX1/COX2 inhibition was shown to be more pronounced, reaching 0.04. At the molar level, C-phycocyanin exhibits stronger inhibitory properties than COX2 compared to celecoxib (IC50 of 260 nm) and refecoxib (IC50 of 400 nm), although the latter two drugs are more selective (0.015 and lower than 0 .0013). The inhibitory potential of phycocyanin decreases to 9.7 µM when the molecule itself is reduced (after accepting electrons and its antioxidant mechanism). Secondary to COX inhibition and possibly other anti-inflammatory effects (iNOS inhibition), injections of 20-50 mg phycocyanin per kg body weight appear to significantly reduce levels of circulating chemokines such as PGE2 and TNF with a single injection. -alpha, which are stimulated in response to pro-inflammatory stimuli, are also noted to have analgesic effects (however, 50 mg of phycocyanin per kg of body weight is slightly inferior to ibuprofen at the same dosage). Despite these predominantly anti-inflammatory (and possibly immunosuppressive) actions noted above, isolated phycocyanin has been noted to enhance adaptive immunity in mice. This study found that oral administration of spirulina for 6 weeks after mice received an antigen (a molecule that the adaptive immune system blocks) increased total and antigen-specific immunoglobulin A (IgA) while suppressing IgE secretion. The antioxidant effects of NADPH oxidase inhibition (described in more detail in the neurology and liver section) also appear to interfere with the anti-inflammatory effects of the selective COX2 inhibitor compound.

Natural killer cells

Two pilot studies (open-label) using spirulina at a dosage of 400 mg per day (but with a higher concentration of Brown's lipoproteins, which are found in gram-negative bacterial cell walls) showed that natural killer (NK) cell activity increased by 40%, as assessed by the availability of destruction tumors (first study) and NK cell mRNA production, which increased by 37-55% (200 mg and 400 mg, respectively) after a week of supplementation; this research received a grant from a spirulina supplement company. Enhanced NK cell cytotoxicity has been noted using hot water extract of spirulina. Several studies on this topic suggest that spirulina may increase the activity of natural killer (NK) cells in the body after consuming low doses of supplements. In animals, the increase in NK cell activity appears to be mediated by the differentiation of myeloid cells with a primary response gene (MyD88) that is involved in the activation of the TLR4 pathway, as abrogation of this protein also abolished the NK activation seen with spirulina consumption. Spirulina also synergized with the inducer MyD88 in this study, although the inducer had no ability to increase NK activity on its own, and this study noted that 0.1% hot water extract of spirulina in the diet increased NK activity after 2 weeks. The induction of NK cellular activity may be non-selectively mediated through affected receptors, since abrogation of TLR2 or TLR4 does not detract from the enhancement of NK activity by spirulina, but the process of double abrogation does contribute to this. Although TLR3-TICAM-1 may cause natural killer cell activation, TICAM-1 in mice does not appear to reduce the effectiveness of spirulina. Spirulina appears to function through the TLR2/4 pathway, which is dependent on MyD88.

Neutrophils

Some studies evaluating myeloperoxidase (MPO) as a biomarker of neutrophil activation have noted dose-dependent decreases in serum MPO, up to complete abolition of stress-induced oxidative increases in MPO, with 6 g/kg spirulina in rats. Lower dosages (25-100 mg per kg body weight) are associated with a significant decrease in MPO induction (due to alloxan), but not withdrawal.

Arthritis

Injection of 200 mg and 400 mg per kg of spirulina in rats along with collagen (to induce arthritis) and then feeding of spirulina over a 45-day course showed normalization of histopathology (visual inspection under a microscope) and biochemical markers such as fat oxidation . Rats given 400 mg/kg body weight were not significantly different from normal rats after visual inspection, while 200 mg/kg body weight still did not completely relieve arthritis symptoms. Higher dosages have also been associated with normalization of motor function in response to collagen injections, although this mechanism is thought to be secondary to suppression of glial cell activation (an anti-inflammatory effect). The anti-arthritic effect was found with oral consumption of 800 mg of spirulina per kg of body weight (when choosing a dosage, it was noted that it was more effective than 200, 400 and 600 mg per kg of body weight); It was also found that spirulina was able to protect the pro-arthritis tendency in drug testing for a week, almost completely normalizing beta-glucuronidase and beta-galactosidase in the liver, spleen, and blood plasma to control levels, without changing these parameters in the group taking spirulina. Another study using zymoxine-induced subjects given oral 100 and 400 mg of spirulina per kg body weight found that the expected increase in beta-glucuronidase was inhibited by 78.7% and 89.2%, respectively. Using 10 mg/kg triamcinolone as the reference drug, it was found to have 94.1% inhibition, being slightly more effective than 400 mg/kg spirulina. Protective effects were identified on the basis of histology, with 400 mg per kg body weight being more effective than 100 mg per kg body weight, but the reference drug was still noted as the most effective. Preliminary animal data suggests that spirulina is a potent anti-arthritic agent, and in at least two studies it normalized rates of toxin-induced arthritis in laboratory rats. It appears to be as effective or slightly less effective than triamcinolone (a pharmaceutical corticosteroid).

Allergies

Supplementation with 2 g of spirulina for six months (6 months) in adults (30.1+/-6.69 years) with allergic rhinitis (allergic rhinitis) is associated with significant improvement in subjective symptoms, such as decreased frequency of nasal discharge, nasal congestion, nasal congestion, itching and sneezing. On a rating scale from 1 to 10, patients rated how satisfied they were with the treatment, and in the case of spirulina the score was 7.21+/-1.01 (how satisfied) and 7.44+/-0.89 (how effective the treatment) , while placebo received scores of 3.40+/-1.71 and 3.54+/-1.37, respectively. The same positive results were reported to be found when consuming 1-2g spirulina for 12 weeks - it was also noted that immune cells obtained from people taking 1-2g spirulina for 12 weeks showed suppressed secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL -3 in response to antigen.

Interventions

One study in older adults (60-87 years; 78 people) found that consuming 8 g of spirulina for 16 weeks (4 months) was associated with an increase in IL-2 (144% in men and 146% in women) and changes in IL-6 (decrease by 73.4% in men and increase by 176% in women), and the change in the ratio is considered as anti-inflammatory. TNF-alpha also changed in both groups, and MCP-1 - only in women. Currently, this is the only study measuring baseline cytokines (biomarkers of inflammation), all other interventions of moderate quality suggest improvements in natural killer cell activity. There is currently limited human evidence testing all of these parameters, but spirulina shows the makings of increasing natural killer cell activity while reducing systemic inflammation. In rats, reductions in TNF-alpha were noted when consuming 25 mg of basic spirulina extract per kg body weight.

Interactions with oxidation

general information

Spirulina, in general, can protect cells from death due to its antioxidant properties, if the cell death was caused by oxidation, this generalizes the antioxidant properties. In a comparative analysis with vitamin C, it was found that spirulina was able to reduce the level of free radical-induced cell death by 2-5 times, but this was less effective than in the case of vitamin C at the same concentrations (125, 250 μg per ml) .

Interventions

A comparative study between spirulina and wheatgrass at a dosage of 500 mg twice daily for 30 days showed that both components exhibited antioxidant properties, but the changes caused by wheatgrass were significant and in the case of spirulina it was not possible to achieve statically significant indicators. MDA, plasma vitamin C and intrinsic antioxidant enzymes were assessed.

Interactions with hormones

Testosterone

In mice with testicular toxicity, spirulina was able to protect testosterone levels despite the presence of oxidative toxins, while the group without the toxin (mercury) but taking spirulina did not experience an increase in testosterone levels.

Leptin

A study in overweight mice (secondary to fatty liver disease) found that spirulina was able to reduce circulating leptin levels down to levels seen in lean individuals; A comparative analysis was also conducted with normal overweight rats and overweight rats treated with 0.02% pioglitazone.

Interaction with cancer metabolism

General mutagenicity

In rats with cyclophosphamide-induced mutagenicity, consumption of spirulina at dosages of 200, 400, and 800 mg/kg body weight for 2 weeks prior to 5 days of cyclophosphamide exposure was studied for antimutagenic and antigenotoxic effects. The increase in miscarriages in pregnant mice was significantly reduced at all dosages, and there was a normalization of previously identified sperm abnormalities (sperm count, motility and shape). In studies measuring DNA fragmentation in healthy cells in response to toxins (a process considered carcinogenic), spirulina at 50 mg/kg body weight reduced the 31.2% increase in DNA fragmentation due to aflatoxin to 8.8% in the liver. , while reducing the increase by 10.2% to 0.9% in the testicles; This study shows that spirulina reduced DNA fragmentation by 1.3% in the liver in the absence of toxin, and the protective effects were only slightly additive with whey protein.

Immunological interactions

Spirulina appears to have the ability to reduce tumor size or slow tumor growth rates, which is secondary to increased natural killer cell activity, although other studies show a reduction in tumor size without linking it to natural killer cells.

Oral manifestations

One intervention in Kerala, India, measuring oral leukoplakia and smokers found that consuming 1 g of spirulina per day for a year was associated with a 45% complete regression of oral lesions in people in this group, compared with 7% for placebo. %; After stopping consuming spirulina, 9 out of 20 respondents developed new lesions within a year without consuming spirulina. Low doses of spirulina (1 g) were noted to reduce rates of oral lesions in smokers, although they did not provide full protection in all trial participants.

Melanoma

One in vitro study examining the spirulina polysaccharide known as spirulina calcium found that B16-BL6 melanoma cells reduced their expression by 50% (Matrigel/fibronectin-coated filters) at a concentration of 10 μg per ml, and there was a reduction in laminin migration ( but not fibronectin) filters in a dose-dependent manner; the same effects are observed in M3.1 cells of the colon and HT-1080 fibrosarcoma.

Colon

C-phycocyanin (from a protein fragment of spirulina) is associated with protective properties against colon cancer due to its ability to inhibit excess production of COX2 in colon cells, which is typically increased in colon cancer cells. Many studies have combined C-phycocyanin and piroxicam, which is a non-selective COX1/2 inhibitor, with additive benefits when combined. Daily injections of 200 mg C-phycocyanin per kg body weight can normalize Akt/PI3k activation and simultaneously increase PTEN and GSK-3beta activation, which is additive with the NSAID inhibitor piroxicam, where 4 mg piroxicam per kg body weight and 200 mg C-phycocyanin per kg body weight inhibits 92.33% of inflammation in the colon in response to the toxin dimethylhyadrazine (DMH), with C-phycocyanin itself inhibiting 72.33% of inflammation (more effective than 4 mg piroxicam per kg body weight - 62.33 % and 5 mg of indomethacin per kg of body weight - 67%), and also reduce the number of foci of inflammation (an indicator of polyp formation) by 65% ​​in an isolated state and by 75% in combination with piroxicam. The same dosage of C-phycocyanin (200 mg/kg body weight) also reduced the incidence of DMG lesions from 100% to 66% over six weeks of treatment; there is a normalization of histological changes, as well as an increase in apoptotic cells from 7% to 30% (data obtained from the graph, the effectiveness corresponds to 4 mg of piroxicam per kg of body weight, and the combination of drugs is additive). In studies assessing cell colonies, less aggregation was found during the combined use of C-phycocyanin and piroxicam (spirulina is slightly more effective, there was a decrease in DMG from 57.49% to 16.53%), and both anti-inflammatory substances increased the number of cells at the initial (from 3.34% with DMG, 20.43% when using C-phycocyanin) and late (from 2.45% to 33.66%) stages of apoptosis. C-phycocyanin is able to exert a strong protective effect against 1,2-dimethylhyadrazine-induced carcinogenesis, which is slightly (sometimes slightly) more effective than 4 mg piroxicam per kg body weight when 200 mg C-phycocyanin per kg body weight is also used, having an additive effect.

Skeletal muscle and physical performance

Muscle hypertrophy

A study conducted on young rats (30 days old) comparing a diet containing 17% spirulina (64% protein by weight) versus 17% casein protein (84% protein by weight) as the sole protein source over a 60-day period. daily course, showed that although total muscle mass, muscle size and DNA composition were similar in both groups, the group taking spirulina had 44% higher levels of the contractile protein myosin, indicating increased rates of protein synthesis compared to casein . No significant changes were detected in the protein component actin. Although the data are too preliminary to evaluate the effects in humans, there appear to be more exaggerated effects from a protein source such as spirulina rather than casein protein in juvenile rats.

output power

One study of untrained college students as well as trained (3 years of activity or more) found that spirulina taken at a dosage of 2 g per day for 8 weeks showed an increase in power output in both groups, taking into account that spirulina was consumed in the background. physical activity (compared with placebo, which was combined with physical activity); there was no significant effect on muscular endurance as assessed by a 60-second isometric test. Nutritional analysis was not performed as part of this study. Only one human study has been conducted regarding power output; it showed improvement, but the lack of nutritional analysis does not allow any reliable conclusions to be drawn.

Endurance and time to exhaustion

A study conducted on healthy young people (20-21 years old) showed that consumption of spirulina for 3 weeks at a dosage of 7.5 g per day (2.5 g with food three times a day; 53.3% protein and 33 .3% carbohydrate) is associated with increased time to exhaustion as assessed by the treadmill test. While placebo improved time by 23 seconds (3.2% improvement), spirulina was associated with an increase of 52 seconds (7.3%). This study also noted a significant decrease in lactate dehydrogenase (79.3% versus control) and an increase in lactate (138% versus control) when blood was taken 30 minutes after exercise; There are high levels of differences in the studied indicators among different individuals. The only alternative study to measure lactate levels was done at rest, finding a nonsignificant trend toward an increase in runners. These results have been replicated multiple times; consuming 6 g of spirulina for 4 weeks was associated with an increase in time to exhaustion (131% of control levels) where subjects were exposed to exercise during a 2-hour run; This study was conducted in moderately trained male athletes, and the finding is believed to be secondary to an increase in fat oxidation (10.9%) while sparing carbohydrate stores (glucose oxidation decreased by 10.3%). Spirulina has repeatedly demonstrated improvements in endurance performance during exercise when consumed in practical dosages by people considered to be relatively healthy.

Chronic fatigue

In a series of case studies with spirulina (4), where each patient was individually controlled, it was found that spirulina at a dosage of 3 g per day for 4 weeks had no beneficial effect on idiopathic (non-painful) chronic fatigue.

Interactions with bone mass

Interventions

A study in rats based on ovariectomized rats (simulated menopause) consuming spirulina at dosages of 80 mg per kg body weight, 800 mg per kg body weight and 4 g per kg body weight with an additional intake of 0.2 % calcium (by weight in diet) or not consuming spirulina at all showed no change in body weight (despite increasing diet with spirulina); spirulina is associated with decreased bone mineral density in estrogen-deficient conditions.

Liver Health

Mechanisms (hepatoprotection)

The antioxidant effects of spirulina when taken orally at 1 g/kg body weight for 5 days before cisplatin injections contributed to the attenuation of liver damage (histological examination), and combining spirulina with 500 mg/kg vitamin C appeared to reverse ciplatin-induced liver damage . Toxin-protective effects on the liver were also observed with D-galactosamine and acetaminophen when 3-9% spirulina was added to the diet of rats.

Liver enzymes

One study in rodents in which insulin resistance was induced by fructose found that low dosage spirulina (0.33 g/kg body weight in rats) was associated with a reduction in SGOT (by 33.42%) and SGPT (by 27.48). %) in blood serum; their increase indicates hepatocellular necrosis, and their decrease indicates a decrease in liver damage. Reductions in SGOT and SGPT have been observed in humans, with levels decreased from 21.1 to 16.7 (20.9%) at a dosage of 2 g and from 19.4 to 15.5 when consuming 2 or 4 g of spirulina for 3 months. (by 20.1%) at a dosage of 4 g; both dosages had no significant effect in relatively healthy people with elevated cholesterol levels, as placebo showed an 18.8% reduction. Spirulina attenuates the increase in liver enzymes (ALP, AST, ALT) in response to cisplatin injections, while the combination of spirulina (1 g per kg body weight) and vitamin C (500 mg per kg body weight) was effective in normalizing liver enzyme levels. enzymes. These specific enzymes were also noted to reduce levels of oxidative damage when fed a high-fat diet; 2-6 g of spirulina decreased ALT and AST in a dose-dependent manner.

Fibrosis

It is suggested that spirulina, by inhibiting NADPH oxidase, may inhibit stellate cell proliferation, which serves as a therapeutic alternative for hepatic fibrosis. This hypothesis is based on the suppression of stellate cell proliferation by activation of the ERb receptor (due to the soy isoflavone genistein and estrogen itself), working indirectly through the suppression of NADPH oxidase activity; DPI (a chemical that inhibits the activity of NADP) also reduces the proliferation of stellate cells.

Steatohepatitis (fatty liver)

Spirulina has the ability to attenuate fatty liver disease (steatohepatitis) in a variety of animal models, including fructose- or MSG-induced overweight rats (brain injections of MSG in infant rats caused fatty liver disease through overnutrition), as well as cholinergic-deficient high-fat diets against the background of injections of pro-oxidants (2-6 g of spirulina per kg of body weight). A study comparing spirulina with similar drugs found that spirulina (5% of the diet) was more effective than 0.02% pioglitazone in reducing triglycerides and cholesterol in the liver, and 17% spirulina (very high dose) was much more effective. than mild cardiovascular exercise in improving lipid profiles with an additive effect on cholesterol reduction (similar liver fat reductions between groups were 43-46% compared with control measurements). Spirulina may also act preventatively, where the increase in liver fat in response to high fat and alcohol intake along with statins was reduced by half with spirulina consumption. In rats, spirulina shows rehabilitative and preventive mechanisms in reducing liver fat and its formation. This effect appears to be powerful. These mechanisms have been tested in humans, and in a series of case studies where three people were treated for 3 months with 4.5 g spirulina, an average reduction in ALT of 41% was detected by ultrasound, including a third case where pathological ALT levels were reduced by 34 %. Triglycerides, total cholesterol, bad cholesterol and the ratio of total cholesterol to good cholesterol decreased by 19%, 16%, 22% and 18%, respectively. This is thought to be secondary to overall improvements in liver fat levels as assessed by ultrasound (no biopsy was performed). Spirulina can reduce diet-induced liver fat formation, being quite potent regardless of lifestyle (and even when combined with statins and alcohol in rats); limited human data have shown promising results. Spirulina appears to be moderately powerful in this regard, but quite reliable.

Virology

Spirulina components appear to have a general antiviral effect in vitro, with relative effectiveness against herpes simplex virus with an EC50 of 0.069 mg per ml. In a study of individuals with chronic hepatitis C, spirulina was compared with silymarin (milk thistle isolate); both drugs were effective in inducing a sustained virological response (suppression of the virus to an undetectable level); spirulina had a stronger effect, but none reached statistical significance. In this 6-month study, 4 people (13.3%) achieved sustained virologic response, while 2 others (6.7%) experienced partial benefit and the remaining 80% experienced no benefit; silymarin had a stable effect on only 1 person (3.4%), the rest did not show any reaction. Respondents had low initial viremia. Another study on HIV found no benefits for nonstandard liver enzymes associated with spirulina. A third pilot study using a combination of spirulina and Undaria pinnate (a source of fucoxanthin) showed that in those with HIV/AIDS, quality of life was slightly improved after 3 weeks of combination therapy (2.5 g Undaria and 3 g spirulina), and in one A subject who used this treatment for a year showed a decrease in virological load due to an increase in the number of CD4+ immune cells from 474 to 714 CD4 per μl (an increase of 50%). The antiviral effects of spirulina appear to be active when consumed by humans, and in dosages of up to 5 g spirulina did not exhibit any toxic effects; may relieve symptoms associated with viral disorders in the short term or counteract the virus over a long period of time. There is insufficient evidence to definitively recommend such treatment. While spirulina appears to be one of the most potent supplements for treating virological conditions (based on preliminary evidence at least), it is worth remembering that dietary supplements do not have significant therapeutic potential.

Anemia

One study was conducted in older adults with anemia; They consumed 3 g of spirulina per day for 12 weeks, but there was no increase in red blood cell count, but there was an increase in mean hemoglobin (MCH), MCV and MCHC in men, and only MCH increased in women. Platelets remained unchanged at 12 weeks, and white blood cells increased significantly at 6 weeks; high variability was identified in this study. Spirulina may have beneficial effects on anemia symptoms, but these findings are preliminary.

Interactions with (other) organ systems

Thymus

Thymic atrophy may be induced by tributyltin through pro-oxidative effects, which can be almost completely reversed by preloading with a C-phycocyanin moiety from spirulina (this study, however, used injections) at 70 mg/kg body weight. Although there was a 30% reduction at control, consumption of the toxin and C-phycocyanin resulted in a 90% reduction, and the protective effects were hypothesized to be secondary to the antioxidant abilities of C-phycocyanin.

Kidneys

C-phycocyanin and/or spirulina are capable of protecting the kidneys from a variety of toxic attacks, including mercuric chloride (reduces grade 4 histological damage to "minor" damage at a dosage of 100 mg C-phycocyanin per kg body weight), cisplatin (50 mg C-phycocyanin per kg body weight), cyclophosphamide (1000 mg spirulina per kg body weight), 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (500 mg spirulina per kg body weight) and gentamicin. These kidney toxins cause damage through oxidative stress. C-phycocyanin appears to have potent renal protective properties through a variety of toxin-induced stressors based on mixed anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms. Heptadecane (a volatile compound) has also been implicated in the protection of kidney function at dosages of 2-4 mg/kg body weight in rats, where reactive oxygen species (ROS; in vivo and in vitro through t-BHP induction) and NF-kB activity increase by background aging normalized in a dose-dependent manner, and in vitro oxidation-induced NF-kB activity was slightly attenuated at 1-20 μM. Heptadecane may also be biologically active, but is less effective than C-phycocyanin.

Lungs

The fibrotic effects caused by paraquat toxicity can be reversed by the use of 50 mg C-phycocyanin per kg body weight in rats.

Testicles

Testicular oxidative damage caused by mercury was noted to be reduced at serum fat oxidation levels by spirulina supplementation at 300 mg/kg body weight, which was associated with 35% less testicular mercury accumulation. This study also noted that, compared to untreated subjects, the group taking spirulina alone experienced an increase in oxidative enzymes (6.3% SOD and 9.2% GSH) with a concomitant decrease in blood fat oxidation (by 14.8%).

Nutrient interactions

Whey Protein

The combination of spirulina and whey protein concentrate occurs because they are both rich in protein; Spirulina has comparatively less of the amino acid cysteine, while most of whey protein's beneficial effects are secondary to its high cysteine ​​content. In a study using 2.5 mg/kg spirulina and 300 mg/kg whey protein, together or alone, for 30 days, whey protein was marginally better at reducing liver and testicular fat oxidation than the two combined. The drugs did not bring additional beneficial effects, but a slight improvement in glutathione status in these organs was noted. Both substances were effective in reducing pathologies caused by aflatoxin infection, with only a minor difference in effectiveness and a small additive effect. A mixture of whey and spirulina can be a good combination for complementing each other with amino acids, but the additive effect is much lower when it comes to antioxidant properties on the liver.

NT-020

NT-020 is a combination of blueberry polyphenols, green tea catechins, carnosine (from beta-alanine) and vitamin D; this combination supplement appears to be synergistic with spirulina to enhance proliferation of stem cells (CD34+ bone marrow derived cells). Although the exact mediation of the synergistic molecules has not been established, an improvement in efficacy of approximately 50% has been calculated. The mechanism of synergy is due to the fact that spirulina suppresses TNF-alpha-induced suppression of stem cell proliferation, while some other agents were capable of inducing stem cell proliferation (worked better when TNF-alpha could not act). NT-020 is known to act synergistically on its own, with all bioactives having some effect (thought to be due to the reduction of oxidative stress). Spirulina is able to suppress the actions of negative regulators of stem cell proliferation, which allow the nutraceutical combination NT-020 to induce stem cell proliferation. Due to the activity of all biologically active components of NT-020, spirulina is likely to have synergism with all components of the supplement (blueberry, carnosine, green tea and vitamin D).

Safety and toxicology

general information

In animal studies, consumption of spirulina at doses up to 5% of the diet (by weight) for periods of up to 6 months is not associated with any toxicological effects; and in this study the presence of microcystin above 20-50 ng per g was not detected; A 13-week study using spirulina at 30% of the diet or 5000 mg isolated phycocyanin per kg body weight (approximately equivalent to 25 g spirulina per kg body weight) showed no evidence of toxic effects. A small increase (2.5%) in ALT was noted in association with a bacterial strain (Nostoc commune). A safety assessment was conducted by the United States Pharmacopoeia (USP), and a review of the medical literature from 1966 to October 2009, as well as FDA adverse event reports (78 total, 38 confused with ephedra and others with toxic bacteria; only 5 reported cases of injury liver and 8 other side effects) showed that spirulina does not show proven harm, both in the case of using Spirulina Maxima and when using Spirulina Platensis. The possibility of microcontaminants from microcystins causing liver damage has been identified, so studies in larger groups of people are needed. It is noted that the critical safety issue with spirulina is that its source lives with bacteria, as it is itself a cyanobacterium. The cyanobacterium genus Spirlina is one of the toxic-free bacteria, but similar genus (Aphanizomenon and Microcystis) are known to include toxic species and can coexist with spirulina during growth; production of these strains is unpredictable and requires quality control. Microcystins can also be produced from blue-green algae (not spirulina), which are protein phosphatase inhibitors; they also cause liver damage and are prototypical microcystins, with an LD50 value of 5 mg/kg body weight. To date, there is no data on the specific harm of spirulina itself, however, the presence of possible impurities of other green-blue algae (which are indistinguishable from spirulina in appearance) may contribute to the production of toxic metabolites. Quality control is required.

Examples

There is an example based on rhabdomyolysis and spirulina. This case study involved a 28-year-old man who took 3 grams of spirulina (Hawaiian Spirulina from Solgar Vitamin and Herb) daily for a month without any combination with other medications without getting sick. Symptoms subsided immediately after a short hospital stay, prompting the supplement to be discontinued; as a result, the cause of exacerbation is considered to be the use of spirulina; This is the only known case of a connection between rhabdomyolysis and spirulina. The authors also suggested the possible production of a spirulina-derived neurotoxin (BMAA, beta-N-methylamino-L-alanine), which is produced in some cyanobacteria such as Nostoc, but this has not been clearly established; There is no literature regarding BMAA impurities in spirulina. Another example involves two strains of bacteria (Spirulina Platensis and A. flos-aquae) that were the cause of dermatomyositis in a 45-year-old woman who used these bacteria along with red pepper extract (capsaicin) and methylsulfonylmethane (MSM). A cause-and-effect relationship based on spirulina showed that the clinical signs were associated with the use, withdrawal and reuse of the drug, and the patient had a genetic predisposition to incompatibility with immunostimulants (spirulina, within the framework of its biological activity, may be one of them). It is possible that spirulina could cause these symptoms, but this has not been proven. Finally, the third example notes liver toxicity associated with spirulina consumption. In this case, a 52-year-old Japanese man with hypertension and high blood lipids (previous statin user) experienced an increase in liver enzymes after 5 weeks of spirulina use; This case is problematic because statin drugs can cause hepatotoxicity only in rare cases, and spirulina was stopped (and symptoms resolved) along with all other drugs, so a precise relationship cannot be established. There are three specific examples associated with spirulina, two of which may be related to impurities in supplements, and the third case may be related to the biological activity of spirulina in inducing immune system hyperactivity. Cause and effect cannot be attributed to spirulina bacteria alone, as the specific products used in the two cases may also be involved in these reactions.

,

Yasuhara T, et al Dietary supplementation exercises neuroprotective effects in ischemic stroke model. Rejuvenation Res. (2008)

Rivers JK, et al The presence of autoantibody to recombinant lipocortin-I in patients with psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis. Br J Dermatol. (1990)

Mazokopakis EE, et al Acute rhabdomyolysis caused by Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis). Phytomedicine. (2008)

N.I. CHERNOVA, Ph.D.,
T.P. KOROBKOVA, Ph.D.,
S.V. KISELEVA, Ph.D.,
Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow

Microalgae spirulina as an object of biotechnology

We constantly hear about spirulina in advertising; under different names, depending on the manufacturer, we are offered it as a dietary supplement in pharmacies. Spirulina is a blue-green microalgae, or at least that’s how manufacturers present it. Initially, spirulina was really only an object of algology, since it has oxygenic photosynthesis, it contains chlorophyll, which is characteristic of plants, it is relatively large in size, and, like other algae, it is capable of causing massive blooms of water bodies, i.e. its ecological role is commensurate with eukaryotic algae. In the first part of the article we will dwell on this position.

There has been a long-term scientific and practical interest in the study of spirulina as a source of high-quality food, feed, biologically active substances, as well as raw materials for pharmaceutical and cosmetic purposes.

What is known about spirulina historically? In 1940, a little-known journal published a report by the French algologist Dangeard about the local population's use of dikhe, cakes made from sun-dried blue-green algae that grew in small ponds around Lake Chad in Africa. This scientist discovered that the same algae grow in the lakes of the Rift Valley of East Africa, where they are also used by the population and, in addition, serve as the main food of flamingos (lesser flamingos have developed a special filter in their beak for feeding on spirulina). However, this message went unnoticed, and only 25 years later, in 1965, a Belgian volunteer expedition identified algae growing in Lake Chad and showed that the cakes from local markets consisted entirely of one type of algae - Spirulina platensis. Around this time in Mexico, the director of a baking soda company from Lake Texcoco read about this algae and suspected that the same algae was contaminating the final product of his production. Later it was found that microalgae grew almost in a monoculture in Lake Texcoco Spirulina maxima. Thus, in alkaline lakes on different continents, separated by more than 10 thousand km, two different types of spirulina dominated. Historical literature shows that the Aztecs and Incas ate a spirulina cake called tecuitlatl before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors, as did the African peoples living around Lake Chad and the Great Rift Valley basins of East Africa. This microalgae was studied especially widely in the 1960–1970s. at the French Petroleum Institute. As a result, the nutritional and feed value of spirulina was determined, and a long-term study of its toxicity according to all international standards of quality and safety of feed and food showed that it is non-toxic and safe.

Commercial interest in spirulina is determined by its unique biochemical composition (Table 1). Spirulina contains up to 70% high-quality protein, represented by all essential amino acids, a complex of vitamins, including -carotene (1,700 mg/kg), B vitamins (B 1, B 2, B 3, B 5, B 5 and especially B 12), a large number of macro- and microelements in a bioavailable organic form. The digestibility of spirulina protein is 85–90%, which is higher than this value for milk. Spirulina contains functional substances - phycocyanin, polysaccharides, -glucan, sulfolipids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, among which linoleic acid is especially valuable (up to 14,000 mg/kg),
-linolenic (up to 12,000 mg/kg), arachidonic and eicosapentaenoic.

Table 1. Biochemical composition of spirulina

Mass fraction, %		Minerals, %
Carbohydrates
Cellulose
Pigments, %
Carotenoids		Vitamins, mg/kg
Chlorophyll
Phycocyanin
Polyunsaturated fatty acid, %
Linoleic
Linolenic

The growth rate of spirulina and its yield are 5–10 times higher than that of traditional agricultural crops, the protein yield per unit area per unit time is tens of times higher than that of soybeans, and 10–30 times less is required to produce 1 kg of spirulina protein squares; Moreover, it is possible to use land that is unsuitable or requires reclamation. The solar energy conversion efficiency of spirulina is much higher than that of traditional products (Tables 2, 3, 4).

Table 2. Yields of traditional crops and spirulina

Table 3. Land area required to produce 1 kg of protein

Table 4. Energy efficiency comparison

The unique composition of spirulina determines its therapeutic effect.

– Reducing blood cholesterol and reducing the risk of obesity.
– Immunomodulation due to the action of phycocyanin.
– Anticancer and antitumor effect due to the action of -carotene.
– Radioprotective effect.
– Reduced nephrotoxicity from exposure to heavy metals and drugs.
– Significant increase in the population of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in the intestines.
– Reduced blood sugar in diabetes.
– Healing effects due to -linolenic acid.
– Action against the AIDS virus due to sulfolipids.

The data presented indicate the value of spirulina, and therefore the scale of its global production is growing (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. World production of Spirulina (1980–2004)

Spirulina is grown in open and closed photocultivators. There are projects for growing spirulina in giant farms on the coasts of the seas and oceans, where various renewable energy sources (solar ponds, solar collectors, etc.) serve as an energy source for servicing the plantation. In recent years, for example, it has been proposed to grow spirulina, adapted to seawater, in intrazonal littoral biomes - mangrove forests that form in the tidal zone of seas and oceans. In this case, spirulina acts as the first link in trophic chains in aqua and mariculture technologies for growing shrimp, shellfish, sardines, tilapia and other types of commercial fish.

In the Laboratory of Renewable Energy Sources of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov developed a technology for large-scale cultivation of spirulina microalgae. Experiments have shown that in a temperate climate zone, spirulina can be grown in greenhouses throughout the year with insignificant consumption of low-grade heat (soil heating) with a productivity of 7–12 g of dry biomass per 1 m2/day. In subtropical and semi-desert zones, it can be grown outdoors for 6–7 months, and in the winter months it can be grown in greenhouses.

Now let's look at the taxonomic status of spirulina and its modern systematic position. In the 1970s The prokaryotic nature of blue-green algae was established. Having formulated the theory of two global morphotypes—prokaryotes and eukaryotes—Stenier and Van Niel proposed to consider the terms “prokaryote” and “bacterium” equivalent. Within the framework of this concept, a revision of the systematic position of blue-green algae was carried out, which from that moment began to be considered as cyanobacteria, subject to the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria. Currently, a compromise status of oxygenic phototrophs is practiced: they are subject to both bacteriological and botanical codes of nomenclature and have a double name - blue-green algae-cyanobacteria, and their position in macrosystematics continues to be a subject of debate. In addition to this problem, both algology and bacteriology have their own difficulties in the taxonomy of cyanides. This applies to both the generic affiliation of the object under consideration - spirulina, and the species differentiation of genera. At present there is no doubt about the existence of two separate genera Spirulina And Arthrospira, and in two parallel classification systems - botanical and bacteriological - they are presented this way. Historically, all “food” strains were included in the genus Arthrospira, but are grown commercially under the name “spirulina.”

The taxonomy of the genus Arthrospira within the botanical codex is quite confusing. In the taxonomy of this group of organisms, great difficulties in identifying species are noted. The reason for this is the high polymorphism of arthrospires, expressed in variations in the size and shape of the spiral, up to the appearance of straight trichomes both in natural conditions and in laboratory culture. Moreover, polymorphism is associated with changing cultivation conditions. We have found that when growing a clonal culture A. platensis under identical growth conditions with multiple passages along with conventional loose spirals (initial culture, Fig. 2, A) other morphological variants appear: straight or slightly wavy, slightly spiral thickened ( b), spindle-shaped and dumbbell-shaped spirals ( V), spirals in the form of “bays”, embedded in the mucous substrate.

Rice. 2. Morphological variants of the clonal culture of A. platensis

Such a variety of morphological forms in one clonal culture raises the question of the reliability of the trichome shape as the main diagnostic feature in the species differentiation of spirulina. Currently, research is being actively carried out to find additional, including chemotaxonomic, criteria.

The widespread industrial production of spirulina biomass and the expansion of its range of applications pose a number of challenges for microbiologists and biotechnologists in the search for highly productive strains and optimization of its cultivation conditions.